Western bluebirds are monogamous; they are also co-operative breeders ("helpers" or birds that are not the parents help to raise young). In some instances extra-pair copulation occurs (matings outside of the monogamous relationship). Helpers reduce the chance of extrapair copulations. They tend to fend off male intruders when the male mate is away from the nest. The females often use display signals to deter extrapair copulations (Dickinson et al., 2000). Females have been seen leaving their perch sites and attacking the breast of an invading male, as well as flattening themselves against a branch. The invading males typically flap their wings rapidly and call in a high-pitched tone (Dickinson et al., 2000). Most attempts at extrapair copulation fail because the female is not receptive. However, in a small percentage of cases extrapair copulations occur. If the intruding male is older than the female, then the female is more likely to mate with him (Dickinson, 2001).
Mating System: monogamous ; cooperative breeder
Both male and female western bluebirds can begin reproducing once they are a year old. Breeding occurs from May to July. Females typically lay one to two clutches (approximately 5 eggs per clutch (range 3 to 8)) during the breeding season. Copulation occurs from 10 days prior to egg laying through the last day of egg laying (Dickinson et al., 2000).
Incubation lasts from 12 to 18 days (Guinan et al., 2000). The nestlings fledge after 21 days, but they remain close. After two weeks, the young birds are fully independent (Guinan et al., 2000).
Breeding interval: Females typically lay one to two clutches per year
Breeding season: May to July
Range eggs per season: 3 to 8.
Average eggs per season: 5.
Range time to hatching: 12 to 18 days.
Average fledging age: 21 days.
Average time to independence: 2 weeks.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 years.
Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); fertilization
Average eggs per season: 4.
Female western bluebirds are responsible for incubating the eggs. Incubation lasts from 12 to 18 days (Guinan et al., 2000). During incubation, males guard the nest while the female searches for food. The female does not leave the nest for too long because the males do not incubate the eggs. Once the eggs hatch, both parents are responsible for taking care of the altricial young by cleaning the nest and providing food. Females also brood the nestlings. The chicks are able to leave the nest after 21 days, but they remain close. After two weeks, the young birds are fully independent (Guinan et al., 2000).
In addition to the mother and the father caring for their young, western bluebirds often have helpers at the nest (Kraaijeveld and Dickinson, 2001). These helpers are older offspring, who are non-breeders. The helpers may have been reproductively active at one point in time, but became helpers because their mate died or their nest failed. They increase their fitness by ensuring the survival of the fledglings who are related to them. For example, if a male bird does not reproduce, he is not passing on any of his genes so his fitness is zero. However, if a male bird helps at his parents nest, then some of his genes will be passed on because he is related to the fledglings. A helper increases his fitness by taking care of his siblings (Kraaijeveld and Dickinson, 2001).
Parental Investment: no parental involvement; altricial ; pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female)