Sarcobatus vermiculatus

Alta., Sask.; Ariz., Calif., Colo., Idaho, Mont., Nebr., Nev., N.Mex., N.Dak., Oreg., S.Dak., Utah, Wash., Wyo.; Mexico (Sonora).

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This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [10]:

5 Columbia Plateau

6 Upper Basin and Range

7 Lower Basin and Range

8 Northern Rocky Mountains

9 Middle Rocky Mountains

10 Wyoming Basin

11 Southern Rocky Mountains

12 Colorado Plateau

13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont

14 Great Plains

15 Black Hills Uplift

16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands

Black greasewood occurs throughout much of western North America. It is found in Alberta and Saskatchewan; south through the western United States to northern Mexico; and east to the Dakotas, Nebraska, and western Texas [15,17,42,43,44,48,66,77,78,83,134,147,148]. Black greasewood was historically present in British Columbia, though it has been extirpated from that province [83].

Plants database provides a distributional map of black greasewood.

(key to state/province abbreviations)
UNITED STATES AZ CA CO ID MT NE NV NM ND OR SD TX UT WA WY  
CANADA AB SK
MEXICO

Sarcobatus vermiculatus var. vermiculatus :
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

Sarcobatus vermiculatus var. baileyi (Coville) Jeps.:
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

Sarcobatus vermiculatus (Hook.) Torr.:
Canada (North America)
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

Nev.

Canada

Origin: Unknown/Undetermined

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Unknown/Undetermined

Confidence: Confident

United States

Origin: Unknown/Undetermined

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Unknown/Undetermined

Confidence: Confident

Black greasewood tolerates mildly to strongly sodic soil as well as non-saline to strongly saline soils. It is normally found on soils that are primarily fine-textured and saline and/or sodic, but this plant will grow on a wide variety of soils from very heavy clays to cobbly loams. It has very high tolerance to sodic to saline affected soils. Plants are highly drought tolerant but can also tolerate high water tables and can survive prolonged flooding (up to approximately 40 days).

Black greasewood plants can have an extremely long root system (reported from 1.5 meters (5 ft) to 6.1 meters (20 ft) long) with lateral roots 0.9 meters (3 ft) to 3.7 meters (12 ft) in length. Adventitious buds are found all along the lateral root system which initiate sprouting when the main plant or the root system is damaged. Plants have the ability to crown sprout whenever the crown is damaged.

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

General: Goosefoot Family (Chenopodiaceae): Black greasewood is a rapidly growing, tall (3 to 10 ft), erect spiny deciduous to semi-evergreen shrub (it is more deciduous in northern reaches and less so in the southern reaches of its range). Black greasewood has a long lifespan with very good seedling vigor. Leaves are bright green to light olive green in color, round, narrow and fleshy.

Black greasewood plants are generally monoecious (having separate male and female flowers on the same plant) but can also be dioecious (having separate male and female plants) [Hickman 1993]. The male (staminate) flowers are small and clustered in pine cone shaped spikes that are 1/2 to 1 inch long. Male flowers lack both sepals and petals. Flowers are found at the ends of the top most branches on the plant. The female (pistillate) flowers are green, small in size (about 3/16 in), very inconspicuous with a wing-like membrane that becomes enlarged as the fruit matures. The fruit reaches approximately 1/2 inch at maturity. Fruit are green while growing, turning reddish nearing the end of development and tan when fully mature. Black greasewood plants flower in May through July with the fruit maturing in July through September. Both male flowers and female flowers can be found on plants from May through July. The male flowers persist on the plant through the end of the growing season, while the female flowers are found on the plant from mid July through November.

Bark is white on young plants and new growth, but turns gray to black on old growth. Spines are found along the branches and at the tips of the branches (spines are not considered to be true spines, but the ends of branches which grow out at about a 90 degree angle). These serve as mechanical protection from grazing.

Mature Seed. Photo courtesy of the PLANTS database.

Distribution:

Black greasewood can be found in saline seeps as well as dry upland communities in arid to semi-arid habitats in all western states east to Texas and North Dakota. For current distribution, consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Habitat:

Black greasewood plants inhabit a wide range of plant communities in the lowlands of the western deserts. Plants are typically found growing in saline soils that can be quite moist (wet saline meadows) to dry uplands. Black greasewood is often the dominant species in the plant community, but plants are also found associated with seepweed, saltbush, saltgrass, shadscale, basin big sagebrush and Wyoming big sagebrush communities. Some ecological sites may only have a minor component of black greasewood, but black greasewood will often increase to become dominant under certain circumstances giving the impression that it is a “greasewood site”.

Greasewood, seepwood, saltbush

More info for the terms: density, resistance, shrub

The following description of black greasewood provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology, and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available (e.g. [84,85,149]).

Black greasewood is a native flowering perennial [83,107,112,116]. Its growth form is erect to low and spreading, reaching 10 feet (3 m) tall [5,15,16,47,48,66,74,96,103,107,112,116] and 3 to 6 feet (0.9-1.8 m) across [78]. The multiple branches are brittle and spinescent; the ends of smaller branches taper to sharp thorns [15,16,17,47,48,50,66,74,96,103,107,116]. Deciduous leaves are fleshy and narrow, and are 0.4 to 1.6 inches (1-4 cm) long  [15,16,17,47,48,50,66,66,74,96,103,103,107,116]. Black greasewood seeds have long wings and are 0.16 to 0.2 inch (4-5 mm) long and 0.39 inch (1 cm) wide (including wing margin) [17,66].

Where groundwater is present, maximum rooting depth of black greasewood is governed by the depth to a saturated zone. It is normally deep rooted but has some shallow roots near the soil surface [71]. Black greasewood consistently forms deep, branched taproots [68,78,116]. Branching increases toward the soil surface; taproots typically penetrate downward to the capillary fringe overlying the water table. Black greasewood is clonal and may have a number of major stem clones arising from 1 large clump. These clones in turn produce numerous taproots [68]. In a Colorado study, the majority of roots grew to a soil depth of 4.4 feet (13.5 m), though some reached the water table at 12 feet (3.7 m) [20]. In California, black greasewood roots also reached the water table, 9.8 to 16.4 feet (3-5 m) below surface [40]. Others report roots reaching 20 feet (6 m) deep [116,128]. The dense shallow root system of black greasewood has lateral roots that may extend many meters beyond the canopy [40]. At a site in Utah where the root system of a black greasewood plant was exposed, the 6-foot-tall (1.8 m) shrub had roots 18 feet (5.5 m) deep with a 3-inch (7.6 cm) diameter taproot reaching to 6 feet deep [128].

Black greasewood height, canopy coverage, and total leaf surface area are inversely related to depth to water. A study in south-central Washington compared greasewood transpiration on a site where groundwater was 23 feet (7 m) deep (site A) to a site where groundwater was approximately 42 feet (13 m) deep (site B). Black greasewood on site A had higher crown density and closer shrub spacing, shading the interior leaves and reducing water vapor transport. Black greasewood on site B, where groundwater was deeper, were more widely spaced with thin crowns. The reduction of root growth with increasing soil depth and internal resistance to water movement may also affect efficient and effective use of water by black greasewood [71]. Seasonal fluctuations in surface water also impact black greasewood; low moisture levels in the top 5 feet (1.5 m) of soil have been correlated with internal-plant stress on sites in Colorado. Interestingly, this study found little fluctuation in the water table at 12 feet (3.7 m) during the growing season, indicating little use of the groundwater by black greasewood [20].

Plants sometimes red-tinged, intricately branched, evenly rounded, to 0.7-1 m, low; proximal branches in contact with ground, forming mat. Leaves mostly clustered on cushionlike base on older wood; blade dull green to grayish green, usually terete and arcuate, 0.5-1(-1.6) cm, pubescent. Inflorescences: pistillate flowers and staminate spikes on shortened branches with 1-3 barely discernible internodes; staminate spikes usually to 10 mm. Fruits (2-)6-12 mm; wing (0.8-)1-2 cm diam. Seeds 2 mm. 2n = 108.

Plants loosely and irregularly branched, 1-2(-5) m; proximal branches rarely in contact with ground. Leaves mostly solitary on elongate shoots of current season; blade bright green to yellowish green, somewhat flattened (some shorter leaves on short shoots), (0.3-)1.5-4(-5) cm, usually glabrous or slightly pubescent, some subtending thorn. Inflorescences: pistillate flowers and staminate spikes mostly on long lateral branches with 3-9 readily visible internodes; staminate spikes typically 11-40 mm. Fruits 3-5 mm, tapered at ends; wing 0.7-1.4 cm diam. Seeds 1.8-2.1 mm. 2n = 36, 72.

Sarcobatus vermiculatus (Hooker) Torrey var. baileyi (Coville) Jepson

Batis vermiculata Hooker, Fl. Bor.-Amer. 2: 128. 1838; Fremontia vermiculata (Hooker) Torrey; Sarcobatus maximilianii Nees

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Topography and climate: Black greasewood thrives in many areas and plant associations from Mexico to Canada, but prefers the cold deserts north of 37o latitude [116]. Throughout its range, black greasewood grows from 500 to 8,000 feet (152-2,438 m) in elevation [78,112,116]. It is found at low to middle elevations in the intermountain region (1,000-8,000 feet) [16,18,85,107], as well as subalpine to alpine sites [83].

Annual temperatures in the shadscale zone where black greasewood is often dominant may range from a maximum of 110 oF (43 oC) to a minimum of -30 oF (-34 oC). Daily temperature fluctuations may be 21 oF in January and 56 oF during summer months [11,52]. Black greasewood grows in areas receiving 3 to 20 inches (76-508 mm) of annual precipitation [11,52,107,112]. Precipitation is unevenly distributed, with most falling during 2 periods: March through May and July through August. Summer precipitation is often in the form of cloudbursts: quick, high volume showers that provide limited available water for plants due to high runoff and evaporation in high summer temperatures [52].

Black greasewood occupies sites ranging from wetlands to deserts and open to wooded areas [83]. In the Intermountain area, it is often confined to alkali soils on alluvial areas, floodplains, dry washes, and gullies where soil moisture is high. Black greasewood often dominates desert areas where runoff waters have accumulated [18,47,76,78,84,93,103]. In the northern Great Plains, black greasewood is common on bottomland flats, adjacent gentle slopes, and stream bottoms [9,66,134].

Soils: Soils supporting black greasewood include silt-clays, clay-loams, silt-loams, or deep fine sand-loams [47,76,93,134]. Black greasewood may grow on sandy soil in the northeastern part of its range, but it is most commonly associated with heavy textured soils of high salt content (0.05-1.6%) [15,16,48,48,78,85,116,131]. Black greasewood is halophytic [20,37,48] and often associated with saline [8,16,21,36,76,78,93] and alkaline soils [21,36,78] that may have a pH of 6.2 to 9.8 [8,36,47,76,131]. Donovan and Richards [39] found that black greasewood is more stress tolerant than rubber rabbitbrush, growing better on sites high in sodium and boron. Black greasewood frequently occurs in nearly pure stands in saline conditions [15,16,48,78]. Black greasewood is not, however, an infallible indicator of high soil salt content; it also grows well on nonsaline soils [27,48,128].

On black greasewood sites, surface soil may be rich in sodium and other cations, especially immediately beneath greasewood shrubs where localized recycling occurs [71,103]. Black greasewood accumulates sodium in its leaves and creates a salt-enriched microenvironment under its canopy due to leaching of salt from shed leaves [40,114]. Soils are likely alkali-sodic in the upper stratum immediately under the plant crown, and either saline or alkali-sodic between plants and in the strata below a depth of 9 to 12 inches (23-30 cm) [47]. The accumulation of osmotically active salts facilitates black greasewood's tolerance of very saline sites. Higher leaf ion concentration can maintain lower osmotic potentials and thus maintain water uptake [40]. In one Washington study, sodium content of black greasewood leaves steadily increased from about 45 mg/g of dry matter in late April to 118 mg/g in early November [114]. Black greasewood can accumulate large amounts of leaf sodium over a range of sites from non-saline to highly saline, contributing to its success over salinity gradients. It is also able to maintain adequate uptake of N, P, K, Ca, and Mg under variable substrate combinations of nutrients and sodium [41].

The following table presents mean values (n=10) for various soil characteristics from 4 depths in a Utah black greasewood community [64]:

  Soil depth   0-6 inches (0-15 cm) 6-18 inches (15-46 cm) 18-36 inches (46-91 cm) 36-60 inches (91-152 cm) pH 8.2 8.7 8.4 8.2 total soluble salts (%) 0.29 0.82 1.03 1.19 lime (%) 13 19 19 14 permeability (in./hr) 0.25 0.12 0.16 0.31 sodium (ppm) 580 1,865 2,355 2,946 calcium (ppm) 63 88 237 1,003 magnesium (ppm) 20 47 80 166 potassium (ppm) 158 118 90 118 chloride (ppm) 788 2,425 2,894 3,557 sulfate (ppm) 140 1,323 1,412 4,244 carbonate (ppm) 0 0 1 0 bicarbonate (ppm) 587 697 546 432

Average soil nutrient contents from additional black greasewood communities in Utah are higher [24]:

percent nitrogen 0.13 phosphorus (ppm) 18.6 calcium (ppm) 9062.30 magnesium (ppm) 607.80 sodium (ppm) 1031.20 percent sodium saturation 8.64 potassium (ppm) 921.00 iron (ppm) 5.80 manganese (ppm) 8.70 zinc (ppm) 1.70 copper (ppm) 2.20

In addition to salt tolerance, black greasewood is also drought tolerant [78]. However, it may respond to severe drought with leaf drop, reduced canopy size, or increased mortality [40]. Black greasewood is intolerant of strongly acid soils [112].

Water relations: Black greasewood is phreatophytic [40,48], and its distribution is well correlated with the distribution of groundwater [103]. It is also believed to be related to the amount of exchangeable sodium and the percent of water retained at field capacity [116,131]. Black greasewood stands develop best where moisture is readily available, either from surface or subsurface runoff [27]. It is commonly found on floodplains that are either subject to periodic flooding, have a high water table at least part of the year, or have a water table less than 34 feet (10.5 m) deep [15,16,20,48,48,71,78,85]. A study of an expanding lake in Oregon found that black greasewood tolerated flooding for 40 days before negative effects were apparent. Water tables within 9.8 to 11.8 inches (25-30 cm) of the surface had no effect on black greasewood [62]. Another study, conducted in California, found that black greasewood did not survive 6 months of continuous flooding [67,68].

More info for the terms: association, codominant, shrub, shrubs

Black greasewood/basin wildrye community, Lassen County, California.Photo courtesy of the PRBO Conservation Science Shrubsteppe Monitoring Program.

On saline sites black greasewood may grow in nearly pure stands [15,16,48,96] or
in association with saltbushes (Atriplex spp.) [15,128]. On less saline sites it
may occur with several other shrub species [128].
Shrubs commonly codominant with black greasewood are rubber rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus),
budsage (Artemisia spinescens), big sagebrush (A. tridentata),
fourwing saltbush (Atriplex canescens), and shadscale (A. confertifolia)
[7,13,38,93,96,128,141,142]. Other shrub associates include spiny hopsage (Grayia spinosa), winterfat
(Krascheninnikovia lanata), black sagebrush (Artemisia nova), and snakeweeds (Gutierrezia spp.) [96].

The following grasses are common associates and often codominant with black
greasewood: saltgrass (Distichlis spicata), basin wildrye (Leymus
cinereus), Salina wildrye (L. salinus), alkali sacaton (Sporobolus
airoides), alkali muhly (Muhlenbergia asperifolia), western
wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata),
bottlebrush squirreltail (Elymus elymoides), and bluegrasses (Poa
spp.) [7,13,33,38,60,69,92,93,93,96,105,128,141,142,143,155].
In Washington, black greasewood is commonly found with spiny hopsage, big sagebrush, saltgrass, and cheatgrass (Bromus
tectorum) [71]. Black greasewood is dominant or codominant with big
sagebrush in the northern plains; other associates include shadscale,
Nuttall's saltbush (Atriplex nuttallii),
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), rubber rabbitbrush, fourwing
saltbush, winterfat, western wheatgrass, blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis),
slender wheatgrass (E. trachycaulus), bluebunch wheatgrass, saltgrass, Sandberg bluegrass
(P. secunda), and thickspike wheatgrass (E. lanceolatus) [9,12,76].
In Utah and Nevada, black greasewood forms large colonies on alkali plains with creosotebush, rubber rabbitbrush, and
sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) [116]. Black greasewood is an important
component in salt-desert shrub
vegetation with shadscale, Gardner's saltbush (Atriplex
gardneri), mat saltbush (A. corrugata), fourwing saltbush, valley
saltbush (A. cuneata), winterfat, spiny hopsage, budsage, black sagebrush,
and green rabbitbrush (C. viscidiflorus). Associated grasses include Indian
ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides), bottlebrush squirreltail,
Sandberg bluegrass, galleta (Pleuraphis jamesii), alkali sacaton, sand dropseed (Sporobolus
cryptandrus), and blue grama [15,128].

Vegetation classifications in which black greasewood is identified as a plant community dominant include:
California [155]

Colorado [7,141,142]

Idaho [33]
Montana
[26,69,70,105]

Nevada [13,14]

New Mexico [38,59,60]

North Dakota [76]

Washington [33]

Wyoming [143]

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This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

More info for the terms: cover, shrub, vine

SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [130]:

101 Bluebunch wheatgrass

107 Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass

109 Ponderosa pine shrubland

211 Creosote bush scrub

212 Blackbush

301 Bluebunch wheatgrass-blue grama

303 Bluebunch wheatgrass-western wheatgrass

309 Idaho fescue-western wheatgrass

310 Needle-and-thread-blue grama

314 Big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass

315 Big sagebrush-Idaho fescue

316 Big sagebrush-rough fescue

320 Black sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass

321 Black sagebrush-Idaho fescue

401 Basin big sagebrush

402 Mountain big sagebrush

403 Wyoming big sagebrush

405 Black sagebrush

408 Other sagebrush types

412 Juniper-pinyon woodland

414 Salt desert shrub

415 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany

416 True mountain-mahogany

417 Littleleaf mountain-mahogany

501 Saltbush-greasewood

502 Grama-galleta

504 Juniper-pinyon pine woodland

506 Creosotebush-bursage

508 Creosotebush-tarbush

606 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass

607 Wheatgrass-needlegrass

608 Wheatgrass-grama-needlegrass

609 Wheatgrass-grama

612 Sagebrush-grass

615 Wheatgrass-saltgrass-grama

701 Alkali sacaton-tobosagrass

702 Black grama-alkali sacaton

704 Blue grama-western wheatgrass

705 Blue grama-galleta

712 Galleta-alkali sacaton

725 Vine mesquite-alkali sacaton

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This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

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SAF COVER TYPES [51]:

237 Interior ponderosa pine

238 Western juniper

239 Pinyon-juniper

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This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

KUCHLER [88] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:

K011 Western ponderosa forest

K016 Eastern ponderosa forest

K017 Black Hills pine forest

K023 Juniper-pinyon woodland

K024 Juniper steppe woodland

K032 Transition between K031 and K037

K037 Mountain-mahogany-oak scrub

K038 Great Basin sagebrush

K039 Blackbrush

K040 Saltbush-greasewood

K041 Creosote bush

K042 Creosote bush-bur sage

K051 Wheatgrass-bluegrass

K053 Grama-galleta steppe

K055 Sagebrush steppe

K056 Wheatgrass-needlegrass shrubsteppe

K057 Galleta-threeawn shrubsteppe

K063 Foothills prairie

K064 Grama-needlegrass-wheatgrass

K065 Grama-buffalo grass

K066 Wheatgrass-needlegrass

K068 Wheatgrass-grama-buffalo grass

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

ECOSYSTEMS [63]:

FRES21 Ponderosa pine

FRES29 Sagebrush

FRES30 Desert shrub

FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe

FRES35 Pinyon-juniper

FRES36 Mountain grasslands

FRES38 Plains grasslands

FRES40 Desert grasslands

Alkaline soils in semiarid or arid plains, flats, or slopes, mixed shrublands; 1200-1900m.

Alkaline or saline soils in semiarid or arid plains, alkali flats, slopes, desert-shrub communities, sagebrush, saltflats, roadsides, fencerows, dry washes; 600-2400m.

More info for the terms: fire frequency, frequency

The highly alkaline ash of burned black greasewood may increase the already alkaline soil on which black greasewood grows [75].

Rangeland seeding and invasion of exotic grasses in black greasewood communities may form a highly flammable understory, potentially increasing fire frequency [108].

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A review of fire effects on shrub
species described poor seed production the 1st year after burning [156]. No
information is available on black greasewood postfire seedling establishment;
more research is needed.

More info for the terms: cover, density, prescribed burn, wildfire

Black greasewood sprouts vigorously following burning [115,116,129,150,157], which may result in increased stem density [156]. Following a wildfire in Washington, black greasewood sprouted in the 1st postfire season, and had restored 47% of its preburn cover by April of the 2nd growing season [115]. A study following a Nevada wildfire found that black greasewood sprouts reached approximately 2.5 feet (0.76 m) within 3 years [129]. A low- to moderate-severity prescribed burn study conducted in Oregon found nearly all (90%) black greasewood plants sampled experienced vigorous sprouting 1 year after burning [157].

Though top-killed, black greasewood sprouts quickly after fire [115,116,132,150,156,157]. However, severe fires may result in black greasewood mortality [132].

More info for the terms: adventitious, initial off-site colonizer, secondary colonizer, shrub

POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY [137]:
Tall shrub, adventitious bud/root crown
Initial off-site colonizer (off-site, initial community)
Secondary colonizer (on-site or off-site seed sources)

More info for the terms: cover, fire frequency, fire regime, forbs, frequency, fuel, moderate-severity fire, presence, shrub, shrubs, stand-replacing fire

Fire adaptations: Black greasewood may be killed by severe fires, but it commonly sprouts soon after low- to moderate-severity fire [115,116,132,150,156,157]. No information is available on postfire sexual regeneration; additional research is needed on this topic.

FIRE REGIMES: Black greasewood is a constituent of several communities, but is most commonly found in desert shrub, sagebrush, plains grassland, and desert grassland types. These communities were historically subject to stand-replacing FIRE REGIMES with intervals of <100 years [108].

Stand-replacing fires in sagebrush communities occur every 20 to 70 years. Fuel loads range from very low to 2,000 pounds per acre (2,267 kg/ha), depending on the site and species. Saltbush/black greasewood stands, as well as other desert shrub types, typically experience fire intervals estimated at <35  to <100 years [108]. A review of FIRE REGIMES by Paysen and others [108] estimates fuel loads in saltbush/black greasewood communities at 250 to 750 pounds per acre (280-850 kg/ha). Fuel production in these communities varies annually, depending on precipitation. Herbage production is generally 0-500 pounds per acre (0-560 kg/ha) [108]. Historically, saltbush/black greasewood communities had sparse understories and bare soil in intershrub spaces, making these communities somewhat resistant to fire [108,156]. They may burn only during high fire hazard conditions; for example, years with high precipitation can result in almost continuous fine fuels, increasing fire hazard [108,150]. Grazing and other disturbance may result in increased biomass production due to sprouting and increased seed production, also leading to greater fuel loads [108,123]. Other desert shrub types may have as little as 40 to 100 pounds of fuel per acre (45-113 kg/ha), or as much as 1,000 pounds per acre (1,134 kg/ha) [108].

Some desert ecosystems are experiencing changes in fire regime, particularly in response to invasion by annual grasses such as red brome (Bromus madritensis ssp. rubens) and cheatgrass (B. tectorum). Cheatgrass expansion has dramatically changed FIRE REGIMES and plant communities over vast areas of western rangelands by creating an environment where fires are easily ignited, spread rapidly, cover large areas, and occur frequently [153]. Cheatgrass promotes frequent fires by increasing the biomass and horizontal continuity of fine fuels that persist during the summer lightning season and by allowing fire to spread across landscapes where fire previously restricted to isolated patches [87,136,153]. In salt-desert shrublands, the presence of cheatgrass increases fire frequency. Brooks [23] suggests greater flammability is due to higher surface-to-volume ratio of grasses compared to forbs, more continuous vegetative cover, and the ability of alien annual grasses to remain rooted and upright longer than native forbs, allowing them to persist as flammable fuels into the summer when the threat of fire is highest. Long recovery periods are needed when large-acreage fires occur in salt-desert shrub [25,28], and frequent fire may preclude establishment of desert shrubs like black greasewood.

FIRE REGIMES for plant communities and ecosystems in which black greasewood occurs are summarized below. For more information on the FIRE REGIMES of these communities, see the FEIS species summary for the dominant species listed below.

Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years) sagebrush steppe Artemisia tridentata/Pseudoroegneria spicata 20-70 [108] basin big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. tridentata 12-43 [124] mountain big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana 15-40 [3,29,100] Wyoming big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis 10-70 (40**) [146,154] saltbush-greasewood Atriplex confertifolia-Sarcobatus vermiculatus < 35 to < 100 desert grasslands Bouteloua eriopoda and/or Pleuraphis mutica 5-100 [108] plains grasslands Bouteloua spp. < 35 blue grama-buffalo grass Bouteloua gracilis-Buchloe dactyloides 108,152] grama-galleta steppe Bouteloua gracilis-Pleuraphis jamesii 108] cheatgrass Bromus tectorum 110,151] curlleaf mountain-mahogany* Cercocarpus ledifolius 13-1,000 [4,125] mountain-mahogany-Gambel oak scrub Cercocarpus ledifolius-Quercus gambelii < 35 to < 100 blackbrush Coleogyne ramosissima < 35 to < 100 western juniper Juniperus occidentalis 20-70 Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum < 35 creosotebush Larrea tridentata 108] wheatgrass plains grasslands Pascopyrum smithii 108,111,152] pinyon-juniper Pinus-Juniperus spp. 108] Mexican pinyon Pinus cembroides 20-70 [101,139] Colorado pinyon Pinus edulis 10-400+ [57,65,86,108] interior ponderosa pine* Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum 2-30 [2,6,90] Arizona pine Pinus ponderosa var. arizonica 2-15 [6,32,127] galleta-threeawn shrubsteppe Pleuraphis jamesii-Aristida purpurea 108] mesquite Prosopis glandulosa 99,108] mesquite-buffalo grass Prosopis glandulosa-Buchloe dactyloides 108] mountain grasslands Pseudoroegneria spicata 3-40 (10**) [1,2] *fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species summary
**mean

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Black greasewood is described as a "stable dominant" under moist-sodic edaphic conditions [47]. A study of saline prairie sites in Canada found black greasewood occurred exclusively on undisturbed sites [19]. However, black greasewood is known to sprout after disturbance [56,115,116,132,150,156,157], making it competitive in early seral communities. With high soil salinity (>1.08%), black greasewood is replaced by species such as saltgrass, iodinebush (Allenrolfea occidentalis), and Utah swampfire (Sarcocornia utahensis) [52].

More info for the terms: adventitious, dioecious, monoecious, pericarp, presence, root crown, shrubs

Black greasewood reproduces by seed [48,107] and by sprouting from its root crown and spreading lateral root system [48]. Though some authors assert that black greasewood juveniles more often arise from adventitious buds in roots that have been exposed or mechanically injured than arise from seed [116], a study of a Mono Lake, California, black greasewood population found that the majority of plants were established through sexual reproduction [56].

Breeding system: Some authors report that black greasewood is monoecious [15,16,48,50,96,134], while others describe it as generally monoecious but occasionally dioecious [17,42,74,103,116,120]. On monoecious plants, pistillate flowers are borne in leaf axils below staminate catkin-like spikes [15,16,48,50]. Staminate flowers are borne high on the plant in small, conelike structures at the ends of the smaller branches. Pollen production is generally high [116]. Female flowers are borne singly at the juncture of stem and leaf back from the tip of the small branches  [103]. Black greasewood is cross-pollinated [103,120].

Pollination: Black greasewood is wind pollinated [56,95,116]

Seed production: Seed production is typically low but occasionally abundant [15]. With removal of competing vegetation, seed production may increase dramatically. A Great Basin study documented 20% of black greasewood producing seed in an undisturbed stand, with an average of <20 seeds/plant. In plots where 60% of rabbitbrush and 43% of black greasewood were removed, 43% of remaining black greasewood shrubs produced 250 seeds/plant [120].

Seed dispersal: Winged seeds allow for wind dispersal [47,56,58,116]. In a study at Mono Lake, California, where high windspeeds are common and there are few aboveground barriers, black greasewood seeds were dispersed at least 0.4 mile (700 m) from source plants [58]. It is unclear how far seeds might disperse in vegetated areas with numerous obstacles to trap seed [56].

Seed banking: No information is available on this topic.

Germination: Black greasewood seeds germinate well at cool temperatures and rates of germination are generally high (nearly 100% at 50 oF (10 oC)). Laboratory tests have shown optimum germination temperatures range from 50 to 77 oF (10 to 25 oC) [48]. One hundred percent germination was achieved with a constant temperature of 52 oF (11 oC); 94% germination was achieved with 60 oF (15.5 oC) for 8 hours followed by 52 oF for 16 hours [121]. Seed from Oregon germinated best at 68 oF (20 oC) [48,117]. Seeds from Montana germinated at temperatures ranging from 41 to 104 oF (5-40 oC) [117], though high temperatures (>25 oC) reduced both germination rate and percentage germination, and abnormal seedlings developed [48,117]. Seeds from New Mexico germinated poorly at temperatures above 66 oF (19 oC) [121].

Stratification of seeds is not necessary; laboratory trials have found that black greasewood germinates best at 50 oF without stratification and at 68 to 86 oF (20-30 oC) with stratification. Black greasewood seeds do require a period of afterripening lasting 30-60 days, and a short freeze/thaw cycle may encourage germination due to the breakdown of the pericarp [47].

The bracts of the seeds contain high levels of sodium which, along with other available sodium, is rapidly absorbed by the seedlings [48,49]. Eddleman and Romo [48,49] suggest that accumulating sodium is a means of adjusting the seedling's osmotic potential to cope with saline conditions during establishment. Adjustment of internal osmotic potential enables plants to maintain turgor, growth, and metabolic processes at low water potentials [49]. Germination may be reduced by decreasing osmotic potential, limiting most germination to periods when salts are diluted or leached and conditions are favorable for seedling growth (that is, spring) [118]. Laboratory experiments have demonstrated that black greasewood germinates under moisture stress, and establishment can be successful at low soil moisture levels near the soil surface if moisture at lower levels is sufficient for growth and development. At 0.0 MPa, 0.5% of seeds germinated; germination rates increased with increasing water stress to a maximum of 37.5% at -0.4 MPa. Germination decreased to 26% at -1.6 MPa [22]. Other tests have found that total germination may be high for black greasewood with water potential down to -0.13 MPa; however, the number of days required to reach high germination rates increases [121].

The presence or absence of light has no appreciable impact on germination rates [121].

Seedling establishment/growth: Transplanted black greasewood seedlings reached a mean height of 2.4 feet (0.73 m) and a crown diameter of 2.7 feet (0.83 m) after 12 years [109].

Asexual regeneration: Some authors describe sprouting from the root crown and roots after disturbance [48,78,116]; a study of a greasewood population at Mono Lake, California noted sprouting from wide-ranging lateral roots [56]. However, Harvey and Weaver [72] found no evidence of vegetative reproduction in Montana field experiments (established individuals).

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phanerophyte

RAUNKIAER [113] LIFE FORM:
Phanerophyte

More info for the term: shrub

Shrub

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phase

Black greasewood growth starts in early spring [79]. Bud burst generally occurs from late March to early April, though it could occur as early as late February.  After bud burst, there is a period of restricted growth that lasts until mid- to late May, at which point accelerated growth begins. Accelerated growth continues until late June [103,120]. Accelerated growth is most likely related to soil temperatures and moisture, with the end of this phase coinciding with a drop in soil moisture [120].

Black greasewood flowering occurs as early as May and as late as August [15,48,103,134]. Staminate flowers form in mid-May and release pollen in early June. Pistillate flowers are not evident until staminate spikes began to dry (early to mid-July), ensuring cross pollination [103,120]. Seed is set in mid-August [47].

Seed generally matures from September to November [47,134], and seed dispersal occurs from late fall to early winter [47,58]. Maturation may extend over the winter with a few fruits remaining on the plant in early summer of the following year [48]. Black greasewood drops its leaves in fall and early winter [55,79].

Flowering spring; fruiting summer.

Flowering spring-summer; fruiting summer-early fall.

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 3
Specimens with Barcodes: 3
Species With Barcodes: 1

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: NNR - Unranked

Rounded Global Status Rank: G4 - Apparently Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: NNR - Unranked

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: NNR - Unranked

Consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).

More info for the terms: competition, phase

Due to the concentration of salts in
plant tissue, removal of dense stands of black greasewood may help decrease the
alkalinity of some sites, though complete removal of the plant material from the
site is necessary [75].

A combination of triclopyr and
benazolin may be effective in controlling (~80%) black greasewood [53]. Applications of 2,4-D or combined
2,4-D and picloram may also be
effective in controlling black greasewood, especially employing 2 successive
applications [30,119]. Applications of herbicide
are more likely to be effective if administered during the accelerated growth
phase of black greasewood (late May to late June) [119,120]. New shoots are most susceptible
to herbicides [116].
Black greasewood may increase in response to grazing [107]. Removal of
competition can dramatically increase growth rates and total leader length of
black greasewood [120].

There are currently no commercial releases of black greasewood.

Seed can be wildland collected by hand in late fall when the fruit has turned a light brown color. Containerized seedlings can be propagated after placing seed in cold stratification. Germination occurs best at 10º C and 30D/20N C alternating temperature cycle (Baskin and Baskin 2002).

Black greasewood is a species native to the western United States. The species is not considered weedy or invasive, but plants can spread to adjoining vegetative communities under ideal environmental conditions. This species can be toxic to livestock.

Although black greasewood is not usually considered to be a weedy species, sites containing the plant are often in poor ecological condition due to the combination of past management coupled with the harsh environment in which the plant normally occurs. Recovering the health of sites that are in poor condition can be very challenging and may take years to achieve.

Characteristics of greasewood, such as adventitious buds and crown sprouting, make it relatively difficult to manage. Unlike black greasewood, big sagebrush species do not tolerate high levels of salinity or sodicity. In general, the more big sagebrush that is found on the site the better the chance of being able to successfully treat the site. Where there is very little to no big sagebrush, the treatment of the site will most likely fail or be a very poor investment of capital. Other criteria that should be considered are climate, available water holding capacity of the soil, depth of soil, soil surface texture, surface rock fragments and slope.

Control of black greasewood is not easily accomplished. 2, 4-D and 2, 4-D + dicamba (Banvel®) are the most common control methods, but these rarely work with a single application. Normally two applications on subsequent years are needed. Occasionally three applications are required to gain acceptable control. Picloram (Tordon®) works fairly well. Metsulfuron (Ally®, Cimmaron®, or Escort®) have produced mixed results. Metsulfuron, when it works, will work very well, but apparently there are some environmental factors that contribute to its effectiveness. These factors do not appear to be clearly defined at this time. Other mixes that have been successfully applied are 2, 4-D + Tordon and 2, 4-D + Metsulfuron. Adding a surfactant to any chemical application seems to improve the success of the control project. Spraying should be completed in the spring when plants are actively growing and the new leaves are about 1/2 to 3/4 inches long. Be sure to read and follow pesticide label instructions.

Deep plowing to a depth of 10 inches or deeper and plowing in two directions is often the most effective treatment where soil conditions are favorable. After the first plowing, wait until the plants start growing again and then make the second pass at a 45 degree angle to the previous pass. Regrowth normally occurs in the next growing season but can happen in the year of the first plowing.

Where the site is not conducive to brush removal, but improving the understory is needed, broadcast seeding around the plants without disturbing them is an option. The likelihood of success for this type of seeding is low; however, some of the seed may grow and improve the opportunity for livestock and wildlife use.

One way of seeding areas where a drill can not be used, due to soils being too fluffy or where there are shrubs or plant stumps in the way, is to broadcast or aerially apply seed and then put a large number of animals in the area for a short period of time to work the seed into the soil surface. Seed trampling works best where the soil surface is too soft to be drilled at the right depth, or where you are trying to seed around and/or through an existing stand of black greasewood that needs understory improvement.

Areas of black greasewood that are burned, crowned, brush beat, or shallow plowed and/or shallow disked will often result in a much higher density of black greasewood. Over-grazing of the understory vegetation also gives greasewood the chance to increase on the site to the point of site domination.

Not all of the ecological sites where black greasewood is found are suitable for manipulation. Thus, extreme caution should be exercised when selecting which sites have the best potential for improvement.

The following points should be kept in mind when managing black greasewood sites:

Wildlife habitat/forage: Although often considered poor browse, black greasewood provides important cover for wildlife and livestock, especially during the winter. Plants are low to low fair in protein levels depending on soil and growing conditions.

Caution: Black greasewood plants contain sodium and potassium oxalates and are toxic to livestock. Browsing black greasewood can be fatal if even low to moderate quantities are consumed without large quantities of other forage in the diet. Black greasewood is poisonous year round, but plants can be consumed safely in light to very moderate amounts in the spring while the leaves are growing, as long as there is a substantial amount of other preferable forage available. As the season progresses, toxins accumulate and the plant becomes the most toxic in the fall. Animals can also be poisoned in fall and winter by eating the leaves from the ground. Signs of poisoning develop 4 to 6 hours after an animal has eaten a toxic amount, approximately 2 pounds for sheep and 3 pounds for cattle (James et al 1980; Weathers 1998). James et al (1988) state that grazing black greasewood properly and with a great deal of caution can be beneficial to the grazing animal.

Ethnobotanical: The tough wood from Sarcobatus was used by Native American Indians for tools and firewood (Welsh et al 2003).