Plectrophenax nivalis

A medium-sized (6-7 ½ inches) bunting, the male Snow Bunting in summer is most easily identified by its white head and breast, black back, and notched tail. In winter, males become browner on the back, head, and rump while maintaining conspicuous white patches on the wings. Female Snow Buntings in summer are mottled gray above and white below, similarly becoming browner in the winter. Snow Buntings occur across a wide portion of the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, this species breeds along the coast of the Arctic Ocean from Alaska to eastern Canada and Greenland, wintering across southern Canada and the northern United States south to the Mid-Atlantic region. In Eurasia, this species breeds in Iceland, Scotland, northern Scandinavia, and Russia, wintering as far south as Germany, Central Asia, and northern Japan. In summer, Snow Buntings breed on dry tundra with rocky outcrops for nesting and vegetated areas for feeding. In winter, this species may be found in a variety of open habitats, including snowy fields, dunes, and riverbanks. Snow Buntings primarily eat seeds and grains, but may also eat insects when they are available in the warmer months. Due to its remote breeding habitat, most birdwatchers never see Snow Buntings during the summer. In winter, this species may be observed in large flocks foraging for food on grasslands or fields. Snow Buntings may be seen walking or running on the ground as well as in the air flying between feeding areas. This species is primarily active during the day.

Threat Status: Least concern

The snow bunting makes its nest in the summer in the North Pole region. It looks for warmer terrains in October, flying south to the North Sea and Baltic Sea regions. That is why you see groups of snow buntings in the Netherlands on beach plains and salt marshes during the winter. They feed on whatever plant seeds they can find. Usually, it's not difficult to approach these groups closely because they are unaccustomed to people.

This active species feeds on insects, other invertebrates such as sand hoppers, as well as seeds and buds (5) (4). It picks seeds from the ground or from low vegetation (5). The nest, which is usually well concealed in a hole or under boulders comprises of a cup of moss and grasses, lined with feathers (4). There are often two broods per year, each clutch containing four to six eggs, which are laid between May and late July (4). By July or August the young will have fledged (4). Large flocks may form in winter (2) numbering several hundred birds at particularly good sites (5).

Snow buntings are known locally as 'snowflakes', and the specific part of the scientific name nivalis means 'snowy' (6). They certainly live up to these names; in summer, males are almost entirely white underneath with a black back, and females have greyish streaks on the crown, cheeks and breast. Juveniles are generally grey rather than white. In winter, both sexes take on a more 'rusty' plumage, but males have more prominent white patches on the wings than females (2). Calls include a rippling 'per'r'r'rit' and a twittering song is also produced (2).

Snow buntings are found in both the nearctic and palearctic regions, including northern Europe, Russia, and Canada from early April to mid-September. After migrating in mid- to late-September, snow buntings can be found in southern Canada and the northern United States.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Native )

Other Geographic Terms: holarctic

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: BREEDS: circumpolar in Arctic and sub-arctic regions. In North America, from Alaska across northern Canada (including arctic islands) to Greenland. WINTERS: In North America, from west-central and southern Alaska, northwestern British Columbia across southern Canada, south to northern California, Colorado, central Kansas, and North Carolina. Accidental or casual in Hawaii.

Breeds in Iceland, arctic parts of the former Soviet Union, Fenno-Scandia and in small numbers in the mountains of Scotland (4). It is also found in arctic Canada and Alaska (8). It is a winter visitor to other parts of the British Isles, particularly the east coast (8), as well as eastern, southern and central Europe, Asia and northern parts of the USA (4).

Snow buntings are most commonly identified by their distinct white wings; in fact it is these wings that lend them the name "snowflakes". While the wings of this species provide a defining characteristic, the two sexes do not always look alike. The male is slightly larger and has mainly black and white coloring. The white is most visible on the underbelly, wings, and facial area. The male's tail is black tipped and the bill and feet are also black. The female snow bunting looks similar to the male; however, what is black on the male becomes a less brilliant grayish brown on the female. The white of the wings is also limited to a smaller patch of the female's inner wing. Despite the differences seen in the breeding months, in winter, male and female snow buntings look alike. Both look like the breeding female with inky black feathers turning a duller shade of grayish ginger brown. The bill also turns a yellowish orange. Yet even with the similarities, the male still exhibits a whiter wing. Throughout the winter, the dull plumage gradually wears away, revealing again the beautiful black and white feathers of a male snow bunting ready to mate.

Snow buntings are 16.51 to 19.05 cm long, weigh about 40 g and have wingspans of 30.48 to 33.02 cm.

Average mass: 40 g.

Range length: 16.51 to 19.05 cm.

Range wingspan: 30.48 to 33.02 cm.

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; sexes colored or patterned differently

Average mass: 41.8 g.

Length: 17 cm

Weight: 42 grams

Systems

• Terrestrial
• Marine

Plectrophenax nivalis is a migratory bird. In the summer breeding season, it makes its home hidden in rocky, bare mountain slopes. During the winter months Plectrophenax nivalis can be found in coastal fields, salt marshes, and agricultural areas.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; polar ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: tundra ; mountains

Aquatic Biomes: coastal

Wetlands: marsh

Other Habitat Features: agricultural

Depth range based on 8 specimens in 1 taxon.
Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 5 samples.

Environmental ranges
  Depth range (m): 0 - 0
  Temperature range (°C): 9.226 - 10.887
  Nitrate (umol/L): 3.120 - 6.669
  Salinity (PPS): 33.479 - 35.253
  Oxygen (ml/l): 6.189 - 6.596
  Phosphate (umol/l): 0.344 - 0.517
  Silicate (umol/l): 2.463 - 2.888

Graphical representation

Temperature range (°C): 9.226 - 10.887

Nitrate (umol/L): 3.120 - 6.669

Salinity (PPS): 33.479 - 35.253

Oxygen (ml/l): 6.189 - 6.596

Phosphate (umol/l): 0.344 - 0.517

Silicate (umol/l): 2.463 - 2.888
 
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.

Comments: BREEDING: Arctic rocky shores, cliffs, stony escarpments and dry tundra (AOU 1983). May venture far out on ice-covered Arctic Ocean (Johnson and Herter 1989). In northwestern British Columbia nests in rocky alpine habitats (Campbell et al. 2001). Nests on ground in bare rocky areas; nest usually well hidden in crevice. May also nest in bird house, cabin, pipeline support, or other structure, or under beach debris. NON-BREEDING:in migration and winter in grassy or weedy fields, stubble, and along roadsides and shores of lakes and oceans (AOU 1983).

Breeds in the boulder zone of mountains. Over-winters in Britain along seashores, on moors, and coastal pasture (2), with an apparent preference for sandy shores (5).

Non-Migrant: No. All populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Begins northward migration by late March (Terres 1980). Arrives in northern Alaska and northern Canada in April-May, remains well into fall (Johnson and Herter 1989).

Snow buntings are ground feeders that live primarily on seeds, leaf buds, and insects. Young snow buntings are fed exclusively arthropods, including both insects and arachnids. After migrating south, snow buntings that nest along the sea coast add crustaceans to their diets.

Animal Foods: insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods

Plant Foods: leaves; seeds, grains, and nuts

Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore ); omnivore

Comments: Eats seeds during the winter and spring (also leaves of PUCINELLA PHRYGANODES during spring migration--Bazely 1987). Feeds on insects, spiders, seeds, and buds during summer and fall. Forages on the ground.

Snow buntings impact their ecosystem the most through the food chain. They eat arthropods, seeds, and leaf buds. Since they associate themselves with other field birds, it is likely that all the birds in the environment compete for resources. Snow buntings are also prey to arctic foxes and snowy owls. As an important member of the food chain, snow buntings help maintain the delicate balance of their ecosystems.

The primary predators of snow buntings are arctic foxes and snowy owls. In order to protect themselves, snow buntings hide their nests amongst the rocky terrain. Their white wings also help to camouflage the birds against their snowy habitat.

Known Predators:

• Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus)
• snowy owls (Nyctea scandiaca)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

Plectrophenax nivalis is prey of:
Alopex lagopus
Nyctea scandiaca

Based on studies in:
Norway: Spitsbergen (Coastal)

This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.

Plectrophenax nivalis preys on:
dead plants

Hymenoptera
Acari
Diptera
Araneae
lichens
Bryophyta
Chironomidae
Achorutes
Arthropoda
Crustacea
Insecta

Based on studies in:
Norway: Spitsbergen (Coastal)

This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.

Gregarious in winter; often in large flocks, which may include Lapland longspurs and horned larks.

The call of the snow bunting is used in mating. The male attracts his mate with a warbled song, which is usually delivered while he is sitting or in circular flight.

Communication Channels: acoustic

Little is known about the lifespan/longevity of snow buntings.

Average lifespan
Status: wild: 115 months.

Maximum longevity: 9.6 years (wild)

Snow buntings are generally considered to be monogamous. While this is true, there is extreme competition between the males. The more experienced males will return to the summer breeding grounds approximately three to six weeks before the females arrive. It is during this time that they claim their territory and aggressively defend it. It is also likely that the males return to the same territory year after year. Once the females arrive, the male snow buntings attracts them with their warbled song that many describe as finch-like. When a female approaches, the male dives and pursues her. The chase ends with mating.

Mating System: monogamous

Snow buntings breed farther north than any other known land bird. The breeding season begins in late May, after the female snow buntings arrive. They build their nests with grass and moss and line them with feathers and fur. In hopes of avoiding predation, these birds hide their nests in the rocky terrain.

Snow buntings usually lay four to six eggs each season. The eggs are white with a ring of reddish brown spots around the largest end. The incubation period ranges from four to ten days and during this time the males feed the nestbound females. In the extreme cold, the eggs would not hatch if they did not have the mother's constant warmth. The chicks fledge in ten to fifteen days.

It is commonly said that snow buntings raise only one brood of four to six young a year. While this is predominately the case, studies by D. Nethersole Thompson showed that nine out of nineteen pairs raised a second brood.

Breeding interval: Snow buntings generally breed once yearly.

Breeding season: The breeding season begins in late May, after the female snow buntings arrive.

Average eggs per season: 5.

Average time to hatching: 10-14 days.

Average fledging age: 10-15 days.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

Average time to hatching: 12 days.

Average eggs per season: 5.

The incubation period for snow buntings ranges from four to ten days and during this time the males feed the nestbound females. In the extreme cold, the eggs would not hatch if they did not have the mother's constant warmth. The nestling period of snow buntings usually lasts ten to fifteen days. During this time the parents feed their nestlings almost exclusively arthropods. Since snow buntings are social birds and travel in flocks it is assumed that the young birds join the parental flock after fledging.

Parental Investment: no parental involvement; altricial ; pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female)

Egg laying begins in early June in Beaufort Sea area. Clutch size 3-9 (usually 4-7). Incubation 10-16 (usually 12-13) days, by female (male brings food). Most eggs hatch before end of June. Nestlings altricial. Young tended by both parents, leave nest 10-17 (usually 12-14) days after hatching.

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 7
Specimens with Barcodes: 12
Species With Barcodes: 1

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.

There are 7 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.  Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.

Download FASTA File

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Contributor/s

Justification

History

• 2008
  Least Concern
• 2004
  Least Concern

Snow buntings are protected by the US Migratory Bird Treaty Act.

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B,N5N : N5B: Secure - Breeding, N5N: Secure - Nonbreeding

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B,N5N : N5B: Secure - Breeding, N5N: Secure - Nonbreeding

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List 2007 (1). Receives special protection under Schedule 1 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, listed under Appendix II of the Berne Convention (3) and the EC Birds Directive (4). Classified as a species of conservation concern by the UK Biodiversity Action Plan, although not a priority species (3). Included in the Birds of Conservation Concern Amber List (medium conservation concern) (7).

The main threat to breeding birds in Scotland is disturbance by humans, but it is thought that climatic factors may be a serious threat in the long-term, as the effects of global warming become more pronounced (8). In Scotland, the breeding areas of this bird are increasingly being invaded by tourists and walkers, which may disturb nesting (4).

The precise sites of nesting in Scotland are not publicised in order to minimise the potential threat from over-keen bird watchers and from egg collectors (4). The most important nesting sites should be safeguarded against developments such as ski-lifts, which increase easy access (4).

There are no known adverse affects of Plectrophenax nivalis on humans.

Little is known of snow buntings's effects on humans. However, they do provide pleasure for many bird watchers. For instance, in Alaska snow buntings are cavity-nesting birds and some people enjoy building birdhouses so they can observe the birds.

Positive Impacts: ecotourism