Phasianus colchicus

A large (30-36 inches) game bird, the male Ring-necked Pheasant is most easily identified by its mottled gold-brown body, long striped tail, iridescent head with red wattles, and conspicuous white neck ring. Feral populations are derived from several distinct captive stocks, and individual males in these populations may show variation in the size and color of the body, neck-ring, head, and wattles. Females are much smaller and plainer, being mottled brown overall. The Ring-necked Pheasant is native to portions of Central and East Asia. Being a popular game bird, this species has been introduced to a number of regions outside its native range. Introductions and releases of this species have taken place in Europe since antiquity, and have more recently been successful in temperate regions of North America and Australasia. Small populations may exist for short periods of time where this species is stocked for hunting, but these populations are often not self-sufficient and may vanish without continued releases. Ring-necked Pheasants are generally non-migratory. In their native range, Ring-necked Pheasants inhabit semi-open woodland and grassland habitats. Elsewhere, this species may be found in similar habitat types as well as in agricultural fields, pastures, and marshes. Ring-necked Pheasants primarily eat plant material, including seeds, grains, shoots, and berries, although this species may also eat insects when available. In appropriate habitat, Ring-necked Pheasants may be seen walking on the ground in fields and woodlands while foraging for food. When approached, this species may run for cover or attempt to fly short distances to safety on the ground or in trees. Ring-necked Pheasants are most active during the day, although males may begin calling slightly before sunrise.

Threat Status: Least concern

The diet is broad, incorporating seeds, roots, berries, leaves, and insects (4). Males mate with more than one female; females undertake the duties of nesting and rearing chicks alone (4). During late April, between 7 and 15 eggs are laid in a grass-lined hollow on the ground (4). The chicks hatch between 23 and 27 days later, and become independent after 12-14 days (4). Pheasants roost in trees (2), and form flocks in winter when feeding, in which hierarchies develop amongst the females (5)

The pheasant was introduced to Britain by the Romans and Normans (4); further introductions of various races (or 'subspecies') have been made since (7), and it is now our commonest gamebird (5). As the different races have since interbred, adult plumage is extremely variable (4). Adult males are attractive and unmistakable, with a long tail, bright red wattles around the eyes (4), a chestnut coloured body, and an iridescent green or bluish head, which is often separated from the body by a white collar (4). Females are paler in colour, with spots and streaks, which provide good camouflage (4).

Global Range: Native to Asia. Introduced and established in most of Europe, New Zealand, and North America; also on all main islands of Hawaii. In North America from southern Canada south locally to California, Utah, southern New Mexico, southeastern Texas, northwestern Oklahoma, southern Illinois, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Maryland. Introduced on Guam but did not become established (Reichel and Glass 1991).

Phasianus colchicus is a non-migratory species native to Eurasia. The native range extends from the Caspian Sea, east across central Asia to China, and includes Korea, Japan, and former Burma. It was introduced to Europe, North America, New Zealand, Australia, and Hawaii. In North America, Phasianus colchicus populations have been established on mid-latitude agricultural lands from southern Canada to Utah, California to New England states, and south to Virginia.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Introduced ); palearctic (Native ); australian (Introduced )

Ring-necked pheasants are native to Asia. They have been introduced
into North America and are now established from southern British
Columbia and central Alberta to northern Minnesota, southern Ontario,
southwestern Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. They occur, at
least locally, as far south as southern interior California, Utah,
northern and southeastern Texas, southern Illinois, Pennsylvania, and
North Carolina [1,12,17]. Ring-necked pheasants also occur in Hawaii
[1].

More info on this topic.

This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands

AZ AR CA CO HI ID IL IA KS ME MD MI MN MO MT NE NV NH NJ NY
NC ND OH OK OR PA SD TX UT VT VA WA WY

AB BC MB NB NS ON PQ SK

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Exotic

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Exotic

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Pheasant shooting became popular in the 17th and 18th Centuries; large numbers of captive-reared birds are released each summer to supply this activity and supplement the population (4). The pheasant is now widely distributed throughout Britain, but is absent from the West Highlands and the islands of Scotland, and from some areas of the uplands in England and Wales (5). It is known throughout western Europe, central Asia, China, Korea and southeastern Siberia, and has been introduced to many other areas (6).

Common pheasants are medium-sized birds with deep, pear-shaped bodies, small heads and long, thin tails. They are sexually dimorphic, with males being more colorful and larger than females. Males have spectacular, multi-colored plumage with long, pointed, barred tails and fleshy red eye patches. Their heads range in color from glossy dark green to iridescent purple. Many subspecies have a distinctive white collar around their neck which gives them their ‘ring-necked’ name. Female Phasianus colchicus are less colorful. They have buff brown, mottled plumage and, like males, have long pointed tails, although they are shorter than those of males.

There are two major groupings of subspecies within Phasianus colchicus. The colchicus group, or ring-necked pheasants, are native to mainland Eurasia. They are barred, with coppery red or yellow on their mantle and underparts, and have the prominent neck ring. Thirty-one subspecies are listed under this grouping. The other grouping of subspecies is the versicolor group, which lacks the neck ring and has green on their neck, breast, and upper belly. This group is native to Japan and was introduced to Hawaii. There are three subspecies in the versicolor group.

Average mass: 1263 g.

Range length: 42.5 to 53.6 cm.

Range wingspan: 23.5 to 25.8 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; sexes colored or patterned differently; male more colorful; ornamentation

Length: 84 cm

Weight: 1317 grams

More info for the terms: cool-season, cover, forbs, marsh, severity, shrub, shrubs, tree, warm-season

Ring-necked pheasants require specific cover for different phases of
their life cycle. Therefore, cover types must be interspersed to insure
that all types are available throughout the year [44].

Nesting cover - Nesting cover must be dense enough to prevent detection
of the nest and incubating hens by predators. An abundance of nesting
cover in early spring is especially important for successful nesting
since early clutches and broods are larger than later ones [60]. Nests
located in undisturbed residual cover (plant vegetation remaining from
the previous year) have the best chance of hatching successfully
[58,60]. Grass-forb stands that are at least 8 to 10 inches (20-25 cm)
high in spring, preferably more than 12 to 14 inches (30-36 cm) high,
are attractive for nesting by ring-necked pheasants. The grass should
be upright, offer partial overhead concealment, and have high stem
densities in parts of the field, with some dead plant material on the
ground surface [21]. Residual cover also provides important cover for
cocks on "crowing territories" [45]. Managing areas for residual cover
has been described by Frank [21].

Throughout the initial one-third (April to mid-May) of the nesting
season in South Dakota, nesting cover consists entirely of residual
vegetation [58]. Residual cover of weeds and grasses in roadsides,
railroad rights-of-way, fencerows, shelterbelts, tree groves, weedy
grain stubble, ungrazed or lightly grazed pastures, marsh edges, stream
and ditchbanks, and abandoned farmsteads all provide good nesting cover
[58,60]. In Colorado, southwestern Nebraska, and Kansas, wheat stubble
provides good residual cover for nesting [44]. Grass or alfalfa
hayfields often furnish nesting cover until mowing time, but then become
deathtraps for hens, eggs, and chicks [60]. Studies throughout the
Midwest have shown that alfalfa and red clover hayfields, particularly
when coplanted with smooth brome, provide preferred nesting cover for
ring-necked pheasants [26,44].

In south-central Nebraska, 82 percent of all ring-necked pheasant nests
were established where vegetation made its maximum growth during the
spring months. Thirty-two percent of all nests were found in alfalfa,
27 percent were in cool-season grass stands, and 23 percent where found
in winter wheat fields. Mixed assemblages of forbs, grasses, and
semiaquatic plants occurred at 16 percent of all nest sites. Vegetation
complexes of mixed warm- and cool-season grasses and complexes that were
entirely composed of warm-season species occurred at slightly more than
2 percent of all nest sites [3].

In many states, roadsides provide the most important nesting sites
[4,44,49]. In eastern South Dakota, roadsides comprised only 3 percent
of the study area, but 14 percent of all ring-necked pheasant were
hatched in roadside vegetation [49]. A Nebraska study revealed that
more than 25 percent of the ring-necked pheasants produced on the study
area came from roadsides, which made up 1.4 percent of the area [4].
When roadside cover is not mowed from year to year, nesting use and
hatching success often increase substantially [35,55]. Several
researchers reported ring-neck pheasant preference for nesting in
narrow, strip cover versus large blocks [23,66,67].

Brood cover - Brood cover must conceal the hen and her brood, as well as
provide food while chicks are small [60]. In New Mexico, Knight and
Dixon [36] reported that ideal brood cover is layered with varied
screening ability: thick from the ground level to 8 inches (20 cm)
high, and fairly heavy between 8 to 20 inches (20-51 cm) above ground.
Twenty- to 40-inch (51-102 cm)-high cover should be thicker than in the
surrounding area [36]. Broods are found in roads and open areas within
and along field edges in early morning when grass is wet with dew; in
relatively short, open cover when feeding; in taller, heavier cover for
loafing during the midday; and in unmowed grassland or weedy areas for
nighttime roosting [58,60]. Dusting and grit-picking sites tend to be
in more exposed areas, usually adjacent to dense escape cover [60].

Brood cover and home range change as chicks mature. During the early
portion of the brood-rearing season, in June and July, ring-necked
pheasant chicks use the same cover types that are important for nesting.
Brood-rearing areas center around hatching sites during the 3 weeks
after chicks hatch. In Montana initial brood-rearing areas generally
range from 5 to 10 acres (2-4 ha), and in South Dakota from 10 to 30
acres (4-12 ha) [58,60]. Outward movements from hatching sites lengthen
as mobility improves with age. In South Dakota, home ranges average 71
acres (29 ha) by late August, with alfalfa and grain harvests causing
shifts in young ring-necked pheasant home-range locations [58].

Favored summer feeding places for broods are recently cut hay or grain
fields, although some feeding occurs in all types of cover. Cover
consisting of medium-density vegetation is used more commonly in summer
than light or dense cover [37,58]. Woody cover is valuable to broods
for shade in hot weather [47,58,60]. Small trees and shrubs receive
more use than tall trees or hedgerows of shelterbelts [47,58]. Row
crops such as corn, sorghum, and soybeans are not used extensively until
August, when the grain and much of the stubble have been harvested
[3,37,47,58]. Use of row-crop fields, particularly corn and sorghum
fields, for resting, feeding and dusting, normally begins early in
August and continues through September and October. By then most young
have dissociated from broods and adults, and young in small groups or
loosely organized flocks more readily use all available cover [3,58].

Loafing and roosting cover - During spring and summer ring-necked
pheasants loaf in vegetation suitable for escape as well as other needs.
Choice of loafing sites is usually random among prevalent plant
communities. Brush tickets, shrubrows, and tall weed patches are
favored on hot summer days for shade. In South Dakota, mixed
alfalfa-grass communities are used heavily during the latter part of
spring [58].

Woody vegetation is preferred for loafing in the winter. During this
season, ring-necked pheasants prefer loafing sites that provide overhead
protection, rather than the open canopy often used for summer roosting.
Use of loafing and roosting sites is influenced by severity of winter
weather and depth of snow cover. Dense stands of woody or herbaceous
cover are used on severely cold, windy days, while relatively sparse
weed patches or small thickets are the most likely choices on mild,
sunny days. In early winter and when snow is not deep, ring-necked
pheasants usually concentrate near woody cover for daytime loafing.
Night roosts are in nearby herbaceous cover. When all herbaceous
vegetation is buried under drifting snow, woody cover is used for
roosting and loafing. If necessary, ring-necked pheasants use the
leeward side of shelterbelt snowbanks for protection during blizzards
[58].

Winter cover - The importance of winter cover areas to ring-necked
pheasants depends on the area's distance to food. Cover beyond 1 mile
(1.6 km) from food is seldom used. In South Dakota, Michigan, Iowa, and
Montana, distances usually traveled for food during winter rarely exceed
one-fourth mile (0.4 km) [58].

Lyon [65] reported vegetation height in excess of 15 inches (38 cm) and
stem densities ranging from 6 to 30 per square foot at winter roosting
sites in north-central Colorado. Knight and Dixon [36] recommended that
winter cover in New Mexico be more than 15 inches (38 cm) high. with
herbs included in all plantings [36]. In South Dakota, wetlands and
some shelterbelts provide most of the winter cover [44]. Sweetclover
(Melilotus spp.) and tall, dense stands of cattails, bulrushes, and
other marshland vegetation are highly favored when snow cover limits
food availability [58]. In North Dakota, ring-necked pheasants require
wide, dense shelterbelts that provide adequate cover from drifting snow.
In Kansas and Colorado, wheat stubble with nearby shrub cover such as
plum thickets is used. In Wisconsin wetlands offer good winter cover
[44]. Cattails and bulrushes in playas provide excellent winter habitat
in the Texas panhandle. Playas with adjacent wheat, corn, and sorghum
fields have proven to be good winter areas for ring-necked pheasants
[36]. Winter cover in northern Iowa may be limiting since vegetation in
many shelterbelts and farmstead windbreaks has been removed or has
matured and no longer provides adequate cover. Standing herbaceous
cover may be adequate winter cover in the southern latitudes of
ring-necked pheasant's range [44]. In New Mexico, cover around water
may also be used. Fall plowing, fall burning, trampling and heavy
grazing around water, and removal of old tree blocks and belts may be
detrimental to wintering ring-necked pheasants [36].

More info for the terms: cover, shrubs

Quality habitat for ring-necked pheasants provides adequate food, with
cover in close proximity. Ring-necked pheasant habitat is often
associated with areas of high soil fertility where agricultural crops
and other vegetation provide the basic food and cover requirements [12].
Cultivated farmland interspersed with patches of brush or woodlots often
provides some of the best habitat for ring-necked pheasants.
Ring-necked pheasants also inhabit fallow fields, brushy pastures,
roadside hedgerows, cutover lands, brackish and freshwater marshes,
lakeshores, open woodlands, dense forests, meadows, beaches, and city
parks and yards [12,17,60].

Ring-necked pheasants breed in most habitats where cover is available
except dense woodlands, but prefer agricultural areas in shrubby areas
interspersed with fields, grass and grain crops. Nests are often
located at the base of clumps of grass, shrubs, or fenceposts, among
tall grasses, reeds, cattails, and sagebrush (Artemisia spp.), next to
logs, buildings and construction equipment, or under small trees and
brush piles. Nests are frequently located close to sources of water.
They form small depressions in the ground and are composed of grasses,
feathers, weed stalks, twigs, and rootlets [12]. Fencerows, roadside
ditches, and field edges that are vegetated provide travel corridors for
ring-necked pheasants [60].

More info for the term: cover

Ring-necked pheasants commonly occur in open plant communities dominated
by grasses, wild as well as agricultural. In the Midwest, ring-necked
pheasants often occupy alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and red clover
(Trifolium pratense) hayfields, particularly when these crops are grown
in combination with smooth brome (Bromus inermis) [26,44]. In Nebraska
ring-necked pheasants are commonly found in little bluestem
(Schizachyrium scoparium), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), and
mixed-grass communities [26]. Ring-necked pheasants in North Dakota and
South Dakota often occur in wheatgrass-alfalfa communities [44].
Several studies in Iowa, Colorado, Wisconsin, and New Mexico have shown
that communities dominated by switchgrass provide excellent habitat for
ring-necked pheasants [23,26,36,57]. In Iowa, ring-necked pheasant nest
densities in switchgrass averaged 68.4 per 100 hectares, much higher
than the densities of 39.8 per 100 hectares observed in
alfalfa-orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata) [57]. In New Mexico,
ring-necked pheasants often occupy communities dominated by switchgrass,
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii var. gerardii), Indiangrass
(Sorghastrum nutans), and little bluestem [36]. On Conservation Reserve
Program lands in the Texas southern High Plains, ring-necked pheasants
inhabit blue grama-Kleingrass (Bouteloua gracilis-Panicum coloratum),
blue grama-sideoats grama (B. curtipendula), and blue grama-plains
bluestem (Bothriochola ischaemum) communities [9,10].

Ring-necked pheasants often thrive in agricultural areas. In South
Dakota, Trautman [58] reported that ring-necked pheasants are found in
abundance only in areas where 50 percent or more of the land is under
cultivation. In Colorado, southwestern Nebraska, and Kansas, wheat
stubble provides good habitat [44].

Thickets, interspersed with native grasslands and agricultural lands,
are important cover; cattails (Typha spp.) and bulrushes (Scirpus spp.)
also provide cover [36]. In South Dakota, plant communities used by
ring-necked pheasants include wild plum (Prunus spp.) and chokecherry
(P. virginiana) thickets, brush-willow (Salix spp.) thickets, farm
orchards and hedges, small stands of brush with an understory of giant
ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya) or wild sunflower (Helianthus spp.), the
leeward sides of groves of willows, and clumps of shrubby growth with an
understory of brome or quackgrass (Elytriga repens) along roadsides
[58].

REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

K038 Great Basin sagebrush
K024 Juniper steppe woodland
K047 Fescue - oatgrass
K048 California steppe
K049 Tule marshes
K050 Fescue - wheatgrass
K051 Wheatgrass - bluegrass
K053 Grama - galleta steppe
K054 Grama - tobosa prairie
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K056 Wheatgrass - needlegrass shrubsteppe
K057 Galleta - three-awn shrubsteppe
K058 Grama - tobosa shrubsteppe
K063 Foothills prairie
K064 Grama - needlegrass - wheatgrass
K065 Grama - buffalograss
K066 Wheatgrass - needlegrass
K067 Wheatgrass - bluestem - needlegrass
K068 Wheatgrass - grama - buffalograss
K069 Bluestem - grama prairie
K070 Sandsage - bluestem prairie
K074 Bluestem prairie
K075 Nebraska Sandhills prairie
K076 Blackland prairie
K077 Bluestem - sacahuista prairie
K085 Mesquite - buffalograss
K088 Fayette prairie

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES40 Desert grasslands
FRES41 Wet grasslands
FRES42 Annual grasslands

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

220 Rocky Mountain juniper
238 Western juniper

Systems

• Terrestrial

Common pheasants occupy grassland and farmland habitats. They prefer relatively open cover, such as grass and stubble fields and are found in habitats with grass, ditches, hedges, marshes, and tree stands or bushes for cover. They are generalists occupying a wide range of habitat types except areas with dense rainforest, alpine forests, or very dry places. This flexibility is exemplified in their successful introduction to tropical habitats in Hawaii where only heavy precipitation and high altitudes pose the greatest habitat limitation.

Open water is not a requirement for Phasianus colchicus, but most populations are found where water is present. In drier habitats, common pheasants obtain water from dew, insects, and succulent vegetation.

Common pheasants occupy agricultural areas but the movement towards increasingly large agricultural operations is detrimental to habitat. Land-use transitions to larger operations include a loss of field-edge habitat (fewer fencerows), removal of bushes, burning of marshes, a trend towards monoculture, suburban sprawl, and commercial development. This habitat degradation leads to reduction of cover habitat and fewer small bodies of water for Phasianus colchicus.

Range elevation: 0 to 3353 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland

Wetlands: marsh

Other Habitat Features: agricultural

Comments: Open country (especially cultivated areas, scrubby wastes, open woodland and edges of woods), grassy steppe, desert oases, riverside thickets, swamps and open mountain forest (AOU 1983). Winter shelter includes bushes and trees along streams, shelterbelts, and fencerows. Usually nests in fields, brushy edges, or pastures, also along road rights-of-way. Nest is shallow depression scratched out by female.

Typically prefers wooded agricultural lowland (5), but may also occur in gardens, parks and marshes, their preferred habitats in Asia (4).

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

More info for the term: shrubs

Ring-necked pheasants are omnivorous, eating a wide variety of plant and
animal food. Although the importance of individual food items varies
among regions and even locally, such variation evidently reflects
differences in availability rather than preference [58]. Ring-necked
pheasants feed primarily on plant foods, especially waste grains, but
also on seeds of weeds and grasses, acorns, buds and soft parts of
herbaceous vegetation, fleshy fruits, insects, and occasionally snakes
and small rodents [7,17].

Chicks live almost exclusively on insects during their first few weeks
of life. Grasshoppers, crickets, and ants are the most common insects
consumed and are excellent sources of protein and other nutrients needed
by the young pheasants. Other insects eaten include potato beetles,
squash bugs, curculio beetle, and larvae of all kinds of insects
including gypsy and brown-tail moths and tent caterpillar [7]. The
chicks' food habits gradually change and by autumn are similar to those
of adults [58].

Adult ring-necked pheasants are mainly seed-eaters, with cereal grains
comprising their staple food items [58]. In Montana, Weigand and Janson
[60] reported that ring-necked pheasants eat a variety of foods but
cereal grains form the bulk of the diet. Much of the grain (wheat,
oats, rye, and barley) eaten by ring-necked pheasants is waste grain
that has fallen to the ground during harvesting. A Montana Fish and
Game Department study in the Bighorn and Yellowstone valleys in the
1940's found that farm crops furnished 77 percent of the ring-necked
pheasant's diet. Wheat, barley, corn and oats were the most important
items. Beans, peas, and sorghum were also eaten but in small
quantities. The seeds of weeds and grass in cultivated crops comprised
about 7 percent of total food consumption. Most important were wild
oats (Avena spp.), Russian-thistle (Salsola kali), sunflower, bristle
grass (Setaria spp.), dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) and sweetclover.
Wild fruits amounted to less than 3 percent of total food. Common
snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus) fruits were the most important. Small
amounts of chokecherry, buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis), and wild
rose (Rosa spp.) fruits were also eaten. Leaves and other plant parts
made up less than 2 percent of the total food. The main items in this
category were leaves of alfalfa, prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola),
sweetclover, and root fragments of prickly lettuce uprooted by plowing
[60].

During the laying season, hens regularly seek out snail shells and other
high-calcium grit needed for egg shell production [58,60]. During
autumn, foods from harvest wastage (corn, small grains, etc.), wild
seeds, berries, succulent vegetation, and insects are fed upon for
building up deposits of fat for the winter season [58].

Fruits and buds of woody plants are important winter foods of
ring-necked pheasants [7,36]. During severe winters, when preferred
food is scarce, ring-necked pheasants feed on buds from shrubs [60]. If
salt marshes are still open, they search for small mollusks and
crustaceans [7]. In South Dakota, the winter diet of ring-necked
pheasants contained a larger percentage of high-energy farm-crop grain
during December, January, and February than at any other time of the
year. Corn made up 75 percent of winter food; wheat, oats, and barley
averaged about 10 percent, and weed seeds about 5 percent. Sunflower
was the most important weed seed at this time, followed by Kochia spp.,
ragweed, and foxtail (Alopecurus spp.). Kochia was unimportant as a
food item except during the winter months [58].

Common pheasants are dietary generalists, eating a wide variety of plant matter, such as grain, seeds, shoots, and berries, as well as insects and small invertebrates. Common pheasants are mostly ground dwelling and scratch for food in the undergrowth with their bill. They usually forage in the early morning and evening. Important agricultural crops eaten by common pheasants are corn (Zea mays), wheat (Triticum), barley (Hordeum vulgare), and flax (Lineum) Weed seeds they eat in North America are foxtail (Setaria lutescens), ragweed (Ambrosia) and sunflower seeds (Helianthus annus). Wild grape (Vitis), apples (Malus), and blackberries (Rubus) are some fruits eaten. They also eat grasshoppers (Orthoptera), caterpillars (Lepidoptera), crickets (Gryllidae), and snails (Gastropoda).

Animal Foods: insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods

Plant Foods: seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit

Primary Diet: omnivore

Comments: Eats waste corn, wheat, barley, oats, buckwheat, and seeds of ragweed, burdocks, etc.; also berries and pine seeds. In the spring eats green vegetation. Also eats some insects, mice, and snails (Terres 1980). Able to scratch through snow to reach food on the ground surface.

Some predators that eat ring-necked pheasants or their eggs include
skunks (Spilogale putorius, Mephitis spp., Conepatus leuconotus),
raccoons (Procyon lotor), domestic cats (Felis catus), dogs (Canis
familiaris), coyotes (Canis latrans), foxes (Urocyon spp., Vulpes spp.),
weasels (Mustela spp.), minks (Mustela vison), ground squirrels
(Spermophilus spp.), voles (Muridae), rats (Muridae), eagles
(Accipitridae), hawks (Accipitridae), falcons (Falconidae), owls
(Tytonidae and Strigidae), crows (Corvus spp.), magpies (Pica spp.),
jays (Corvidae), grackles (Quiscalus spp.), and gulls (Larus spp.)
[7,28,36,45,60].

Losses due to predation are generally highest in late winter and early
spring, apparently because at this time ring-necked pheasants are often
forced into the open to find food [28,45]. Predation accounted for 80.8
percent of all classified deaths among a radio-tagged sample of 244
ring-necked hens on the Waterlow Wildlife Area in Wisconsin. More than
60 percent of the losses due to predation were attributed to mammalian
predators. The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) was implicated in four-fifths of
these deaths [18]. Predator control is sometimes necessary to protect
small populations or when an new population is being established [36].

Animal / dung saprobe
apothecium of Ascobolus crenulatus is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of dung of Phasianus colchicus

In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Animal / parasite / ectoparasite / blood sucker
Ixodes ricinus sucks the blood of Phasianus colchicus
Other: major host/prey

Animal / predator
adult of Phasianus colchicus is predator of adult of Timarcha tenebricosa

Animal / dung saprobe
immersed, neck protruding perithecium of Podospora curvicolla is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of dung of Phasianus colchicus
Other: minor host/prey

Animal / dung saprobe
partly immersed perithecium of Podospora pleiospora is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of dung of Phasianus colchicus

Animal / dung saprobe
scattered or gregarious, superficial, sessile apothecium of Saccobolus dilutellus is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of dung of Phasianus colchicus

Common pheasants play a role as prey for larger carnivores and as an insectivore, helping to control insect populations. They may also disperse seeds through their seed predation. They may negatively affect greater prairie chickens (Tympanuchus cupido) and gray partridges (Perdix perdix) through nest parasitism, habitat competition, transmission of disease, and aggressive behaviour. A study in Kansas reported nest parasitism of lesser prairie chickens by common pheasants. This rate of nest parasitism appeared to be density-dependent, increasing as nest site availability decreased. Other studies have investigated the negative impact of common pheasants on greater prairie chickens through nest parasitism. Pheasant eggs hatch earlier than prairie chicken eggs. The rate of embryo mortality or nest abandonment increases in parasitized prairie-chicken nests.

The release of common pheasants into woodland areas for game shooting is common. One study in Britain looked into the impact of this practice. They found that there was a neutral or positive impact of common pheasants on vegetation and bird communities. However, it is important to note that this study was done in pheasant-managed woodland areas and this management practice may have been more beneficial than the presence of pheasants themselves.

Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• Borrelia burgdorferi
• vector ticks (lxodes ricinus)
• fleas (Siphonaptera)
• lice (Mallophaga)
• tapeworms (Railletina)
• caecal worms (Heterakis gallinarum)

Adult common pheasants may be preyed on either while on the ground or in flight. Some of their behavioral responses to danger include retreating into cover or hiding. They also may fly, crouch, or run. Hens facing a predator may display a broken wing in an attempt to draw their predator away from their nest or they may just try to sit very still. When chicks in a brood are preyed on, often more than one is taken at a time. Exposure to extreme weather is also attributed to chick mortality. Game hunting by humans is a significant predation concern for male pheasants in some areas. Common pheasants are particularly vulnerable to predation during nesting. Studies have shown that control of nest predators, particularly red foxes, can be a significant pheasant conservation tool. Additionally, increased pheasant predation rates are linked closely to increased rates of habitat destruction. This may be because habitat degradation renders prey more vulnerable to predators.  Studies have also been conducted to determine whether certain subspecies have higher survival rates in specific habitats. One particular study focused on the Sichuan subspecies of common pheasants, which nest in woody cover, a trait which makes them less susceptible to agricultural land degradation. However, this study found that Sichuan hens had no survival advantage over hens of other subspecies. Much information on predation in common pheasants is known from North American populations, where they are an important game species.

Known Predators:

• red foxes (Vulpes vulpes)
• domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris)
• coyotes (Canis latrans)
• badgers (Taxidea taxus)
• mink (Neovison vison)
• weasel species (Mustela)
• striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis)
• raccoons (Procyon lotor)
• great horned owls (Bubo virginianus)
• red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis)
• red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus)
• rough-legged hawks (Buteo lagopus)
• Cooper’s hawks (Accipiter cooperii)
• northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis)
• peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus)
• northern harriers (Circus cyaneus)
• snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

Phasianus colchicus (ring-necked pheasent) is prey of:
Buteo swainsoni

Based on studies in:
USA: California, Cabrillo Point (Grassland)

This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.

More info for the terms: cover, forbs, marsh, prescribed fire

Ring-necked pheasants may be both positively and negatively affected by
fire occurring in their habitat. The effect of fire on ring-necked
pheasants during the first postfire year is generally negative if
valuable cover is destroyed and alternate cover is not available
[27,32,45]. However, fire is an important factor in creating and
maintaining ring-necked pheasant habitat and often has a positive effect
over the long term [27,32,34].

Short-term effects - Scattered patches of tall, dense (undisturbed)
cover are important for ring-necked pheasant survival [62]. Spring
burning of grain stubble, irrigation ditchbanks, barrow pits, railroad
rights-of-way, and agriculturally idle areas removes important nesting
cover for that year. Removal of herbaceous cover in abandoned fields or
along fencerows destroys crowing territories, nesting sites, and
general escape cover for ring-necked pheasants both in summer and winter
[45]. Fall burning of grain stubble destroys protective foraging cover
[60].

Marsh vegetation may provide the only early nesting cover in some areas.
Burning of marshes just prior to the nesting season is especially
harmful to ring-necked pheasants [45].

Remnant tracts of sagebrush in southern Idaho provide important winter
loafing and escape cover for ring-necked pheasants. Fire may cause
sagebrush to revert to grasslands that do not provide ring-necked
pheasant winter habitat, and it may take 15 to 20 years for a useful
shrub component to reestablish in a dryland setting [42].

Long-term effects - Although ring-necked pheasants may be negatively
affected by fire the first postfire year, periodic disturbance of stands
is desirable and often essential to maintain ring-necked pheasant
habitat. To provide residual grass-forb cover, suitable areas of cover
must be established and then the stand must be "rejuvenated" every few
years by fire or other disturbance [21].

On the Rathbun Wildlife Area in south-central Iowa, there was a marked
decline in available nesting cover for ring-necked pheasants immediately
following a spring prescribed fire. The quality of nesting cover then
gradually improved in subsequent years until it reached or exceeded
prefire and control levels. In addition to altering species composition
and improving plant vigor, prescribed burning removed accumulated litter
resulting in an overall improvement of nesting cover. Following a July
prescribed fire, brood and renesting cover were reduced. Brood cover
seemed to show rapid improvement due to the rapid growth of
canopy-forming forbs such as common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia)
and goldenrod (Solidago spp.). Nesting cover improved gradually in
ensuing years [27].

More info for the term: polygamous

Breeding season - Ring-necked pheasants are usually polygamous but
some males are monogamous. In the spring it is common to see one male
with several females [7]. In Montana cocks are capable of breeding by
late February and hens can lay eggs by late March. Winter weather,
which often prevails through March in much of Montana, may delay mating
attempts until April. Cocks defend breeding territories or "crowing
territories," and crow to attract hens. The boundaries of a "crowing
territory" may shift as the season progresses [58]. Cocks mate with any
receptive hen that enters their territory. In Montana crowing begins
in late March, reaches a peak in May, and then gradually subsides.
Sporadic crowing may be heard through July. Cocks and hens are sexually
active until about August 1 [60].

Age at first reproduction - Ring-necked pheasants are capable of
breeding the spring of the year after they hatch [60].

Nesting and incubation - Before nesting, hens frequently lay eggs at
random or deposit them in "dump" nests (a nest where eggs are layed but
are not incubated and do not hatch). Several hens may lay eggs in a
single dump nest and then abandon them. As many as 50 eggs have been
found in a single dump nest. The incidence of random egg laying and
laying in dump nests appears to increase as the local ring-necked
pheasant population increases [60].

After constructing a nest, the hen lays 6 to 15 eggs, usually 10 to 12
[7]. The hen lays one egg per day until the clutch is complete.
Incubation begins after the entire clutch is laid. Ring-necked pheasant
hens often renest after a clutch is destroyed. The hen will continue
nesting attempts until she successfully hatches a clutch, loses a clutch
late in incubation, or can no longer produce eggs that season. The
average number of eggs laid per clutch decreases by one or more with
each successive attempted renest. An average first clutch of 10 eggs
may be reduced by half in the third or fourth renest attempt [60]. The
eggs are incubated by the hen for 23 to 25 days [7]. Each hen hatches
only one brood during the breeding season, but because of renesting
attempts, broods of many different ages can be seen throughout the
season [60].

Ring-necked pheasants sometimes lay eggs in nests of other birds such as
gray partridge (Perdix perdix), ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), and
blue-winged teal (Anas discors). Few of these eggs hatch, and the
chicks that do hatch probably do not survive long [7,60].

Egg-laying dates - Egg dates recorded by Bent [7] are as follows:

Washington and Oregon - April 13-June 17
California - May 3-June 10
Michigan - April 17
Massachusetts - May 16
Pennsylvania - May 12 and June 4

In British Columbia, egg dates from 189 clutches ranged from April 21 to
July 27, with 51 percent recorded between May 10 and June 8 [12]. The
earliest recorded ring-neck pheasant nest in Montana was found on April
15. Nesting activity peaks during the first half of May, although this
varies somewhat with location. In Montana, the latest nesting activity
was recorded on September 13 [60].

Fledging - The hen leads her chicks away from the nest as soon as their
feathers have dried [7,58]. Within a few days they start developing
wing feathers, and are capable of making short flights by the time they
are 2 weeks old. The downy coat is completely replaced by juvenile
feathers within 6 weeks [58]. The chicks are cared for by the hen until
they are 6 to 8 weeks old [7,58].

Life span - Mortality of young ring-necked pheasants is high. The
mortality between hatching and 2 weeks of age may be as high as 25
percent and may increase to almost 50 percent by 9 weeks of age. The
main causes of chick loss are chilling rain or hail storms, predation,
road traffic and farming operations [60]. Only about 3 out of 10 chicks
survive to adulthood the spring after hatching. A 2-year-old is a
comparatively old ring-necked pheasant. Birds 3 or more years old
usually make up 5 percent or less of the population. Complete
population turnover (length of time for all birds hatched during any 1
year to die) generally occurs within 5 years [60].

Usually ranges over no more than approximately 2-3 km (Terres 1980). In fall family groups may join and form flocks of 30-40 birds. Flocks break up in spring.

When alarmed, common pheasants make distinctive hoarse croaking notes. In males, this is a loud, piercing, double squawk ko-ork kok, with a sharp staccato on the last syllable. This crowing call is also made when males are establishing their territory. In agricultural areas, males may be heard crowing at dusk, dawn, and during the mating season. This call is very similar to the familiar call of a rooster and can travel up to a mile. Female calls tend to be more subtle and less likely to be audible.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Chick survival is influenced by hatch date, mass at birth, and habitat type. Many young don’t live beyond autumn. Annual survival rate of adult females is 21 to 46%, while it is only 7% for males. In some areas the reduced survival rate of males can be accounted for by the hunting of male common pheasants by humans. Nearly all wild birds die by age three. Adult mortality is caused by predation, agricultural activities, exposure to pesticides and toxins, and accidents with motorized vehicles.

Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 11 to 18 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild: 3 years.

Maximum longevity: 27 years (captivity) Observations: In the wild, mortality is high and only 5% of animals survive up to age 3 (http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/).

Common pheasants are polygynous, with a single male having a harem of several females. Common pheasants breed seasonally. In early spring (mid-March to early June) males establish breeding or crowing territories. These territories are relative in terms of other males’ territories and do not necessarily have definitive boundaries. On the other hand, females are not territorial. Within their breeding harem, they may show a dominance hierarchy. These harems last through the courting and nesting period and may have 2 to 18 females. Each female typically has a seasonally monogamous relationship with one territorial male.  In early spring, males establish a harem by crowing and wing-whirring displays. Crowing is the distinctive, loud korrk-kok call of males which they use to maintain their territory. This may be preceded by an almost inaudible wing-flap, after which the male may perform a brief but vigorous wing-whirring. Physical interactions between competing males may include flying at each other breast-to-breast, biting wattles, or high leaps with kicks toward the other’s bill. Males who establish breeding territories earlier in the season tend to be dominant over males establishing territory later.  Mate selection by females is dependent on a few factors. Female common pheasants tend to choose dominant males who can, for example, offer protection. Studies have found that females prefer long tails in males and that the length of ear tufts and presence of black points on the wattle also influences female choice. The general brightness of a male's plumage is not a factor, perhaps because brightness is not correlated to testosterone levels or dominant behaviors in male common pheasants.

Males have different courtship displays which elicit different responses in females. One study found that feeding rituals in males attracted female common pheasants, while lateral display courtship behaviors in males aroused females for copulation. In a lateral display, the male approaches the female, crossing slowly in a semicircle in front of her with his head low, the nearer wing drooped and his wattle erect. This lateral display often precedes copulation but later in the season a male may simply pursue and attempt to mount a female.

Mating System: polygynous

Nesting begins just before females start to lay eggs. The female will scrape a shallow depression in the ground in a well covered area, lining it lightly with readily available plant material. She will typically lay one egg a day until 7 to 15 eggs have been laid. Larger clutches of eggs arise when two or more hens lay in the same nest. The female will remain close to the nest, incubating the eggs for most of the day, leaving in the morning and evening to feed. Chicks are precocial at hatching, completely covered with down and with their eyes open. They are able to immediately begin walking and following the hen to sources of food; they are largely self-feeding.

Breeding interval: Ring-necked pheasants breed once yearly.

Breeding season: The ring-necked pheasant breeding season extends from mid-March to June.

Range eggs per season: 7 to 15.

Average eggs per season: 10.

Range time to hatching: 23 to 28 days.

Average time to hatching: 24 days.

Average birth mass: 18.5 g.

Range fledging age: 7 to 12 days.

Range time to independence: 70 to 80 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 years.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

Most parental investment in common pheasants is by females. After building her nest and laying the eggs, the female is responsible for incubating them. Incubation takes approximately 23 days after the final egg is laid. When the chicks hatch, they are cared for solely by the hen. They are precocial when they hatch, covered with down, eyes open, and legs developed. They are able to immediately begin following the hen to sources of food and the young chicks will feed themselves. The hen’s main role is to lead her chicks to food after hatching. By about 12 days, young are able to fly and typically remain with the hen for 70 to 80 days before becoming independent.

Parental Investment: precocial ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Protecting: Female)

Usually 10-12, sometimes 5-23 eggs are laid in one nest. Two hens may lay eggs in same nest. Incubation lasts 23-25 days. Precocial young are tended by female.

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 19
Specimens with Barcodes: 23
Species With Barcodes: 1

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.

There are 11 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.  Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.

Download FASTA File

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Contributor/s

Justification

History

• 2008
  Least Concern
• 2004
  Least Concern

Common pheasants are widely distributed and their conservation status is of least concern.

US Migratory Bird Act: no special status

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: NNA - Not Applicable

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: NNA - Not Applicable

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Introduced (9). Covered by Game Acts which give protection in the close season and allow it to be shot from 1st October to 1st February (10).

Population

Not currently threatened.

More info for the term: cover

Prescribed burning can be used to maintain ring-necked pheasant habitat
[3,62]. In some areas, prescribed burning to improve sharp-tailed
grouse (Tympanuchus phasianellus) habitat has also improved habitat for
ring-necked pheasants [6,59]. Cover must always be available for
nesting, brood-rearing, loafing, and roosting. If ring-necked pheasant
habitat is burned, alternate cover must be available. Westmeier [62]
suggests the following 3-year management rotation for ring-necked
pheasant habitat in Illinois:

first year - no disturbance
second year- March fire (possibly followed by July haying or light grazing)
third year - light grazing, rotary mowing, or seed harvesting (by combine) in
late summer or fall.

More info for the term: cover

Ring-necked pheasants are a game bird and are hunted in many states
[58,60].

Grazing can have a negative impact on ring-necked pheasants. Heavy
grazing of shelterbelts destroys the value of these areas for nesting,
brood-rearing, and general cover. Prolonged or heavy browsing of the
woody plants can eventually kill the shelterbelt. Grazing of ditchbanks
and other uncultivated areas may reduce or eliminate cover value for
ring-necked pheasants [58].

Drainage of wetlands often removes critical ring-necked pheasant
nesting, brooding, roosting and protective winter habitat [60].
Reestablishing old, drained wetlands that have not proven agriculturally
productive can improve ring-necked pheasant habitat [58].

Pesticides applied to ring-necked pheasant habitats may kill the bird
directly, during application, or indirectly, when ring-necked pheasants
eat treated insects or vegetation [60]. Heavy use of herbicides can be
detrimental by limiting cover [36].

Farming operations such as mowing and plowing often have a negative
impact on ring-necked pheasants. Mowing during the nesting season often
destroys ring-necked pheasant nests, broods, and hens [45,48,60].
Recommended farm practices for promoting ring-necked pheasants and an
explanation of their typical effects on the birds have been described
[51].

REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY

The Game Conservancy Trust is currently researching the consequences of releasing large numbers of captive-bred pheasants into small areas (8).

Common pheasants are highly susceptible to Newcastle disease, a significant disease in birds because of high mortality rates in those affected. Disease outbreaks have economic implications including trade embargos and restrictions of poultry sales in areas of outbreak. Common pheasants can carry Newcastle disease and spread it to other wild and domestic birds, which can be potentially negative to humans.

Negative Impacts: causes or carries domestic animal disease

The predominant benefit of Phasianus colchicus to humans is as an upland game bird.