Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus

The pinyon jay's common name derives from its close association with the pinyon pine, a collective name for a number of pine species bearing cones that produce edible seeds (2). In late August, when the pinyon seeds begin to ripen, the jays start foraging, skilfully extracting the seeds using their long, pointed beaks. Having bare nostrils allows the jays to probe deep into the pine cone using the entire length of their bill, avoiding the problem of feathers becoming fouled by the sticky pine-resin exuded by the cone. Once the cones fully mature and the seeds become exposed, the pinyon jays commence their amazing, food-caching behaviour. After evaluating whether the seeds are good, they break the seed coat open by pounding it with their bill and then swallow the kernel. Storing about four to five of these seeds in their expandable oesophagus, the jays then fly to a communal cache site, usually between one and five kilometres away from the main colony, where they bury the seeds in loose soil. Studies of pinyon jays in New Mexico found that a group of 250 birds managed to cache an incredible four and a half million seeds in one season (4). Using their phenomenal spatial memories, the birds are able to find many of these subterranean seed stores again, even under a covering of snow, which supply them with the nutrition and energy to be able to start their breeding season in the winter (3). The pinyon jay is normally found in large, loose communal flocks of around 250 birds, with a distinct social hierarchy, and form extensive nesting colonies during the breeding season (3). Breeding pairs are established following courtship around November and generally remain together for life (6). Both sexes in the pair work to create a fairly bulky, well-insulated nest from twigs, shredded grass and other available materials (2) (7). Three to four eggs are laid and incubated by the female, while the male joins a feeding flock, returning regularly to supply the female with food (7). After about 16 days the eggs hatch, and for the first ten days the nestlings are brooded by the female, until capable of maintaining their body temperature (6). After this time, the young gather into communal crèches of hundreds of individuals, where they continue to be fed by both parent birds. Such behaviour may serve as an anti-predator mechanism, since it allows for continual guarding of the nest by adults, while the others forage. The pinyon jay is relatively long-lived with adults reaching up to 16 years in the wild (2).

A member of the crow family, the pinyon jay is a highly social bird with a truly remarkable memory (3) (4). Although the body and head are uniform in colour, the pinyon jay can appear to be a variety of blue shades due to the way light is reflected from its feathers (4). The eyes are dark brown, the legs and feet are black, and the tail is relatively short. The adult male and female are generally similar in appearance, although the male has a darker crown and longer bill, while the juveniles are a dull, grey colour (2). The genus name of the pinyon jay, Gymnorhinus, means “naked nostrils”, a reference to the fact that, unlike most other corvids, the nostrils of its bill are not covered by feathers (2). Bill shape is long and pointed, but varies according to geographical region, with birds found in the northern part of its range having shorter and thinner bills than those in the south-western regions (4). The pinyon jay makes a variety of noises, but its typical call is a high, nasal 'caw' (2).

Pinyon-juniper woodlands of s Oregon to sw US and n Baja.

Pinyon jays are residents from central Oregon to western South Dakota, south to northern Baja California, northwestern and east-central Arizona, central New Mexico, and western Oklahoma [2,38]. They winter throughout their breeding range and irregularly from southern Washington to northwestern Montana, and south to Mexico and central Texas [38]. When pinyon seed crops are poor [10], pinyon jays may wander to central Washington, northwestern Oregon, northern Idaho, northwestern Montana, throughout the Great Basin, Nebraska, Kansas, central-western and southwestern California, southeastern Arizona, central Texas, and northern Chihuahua [2]. The pinyon jay is casual in Iowa and a sight report exists in Saskatchewan [2]. A general map of the pinyon jay's distribution can be found at Cornell's All About Birds website .

The following lists are speculative. They are based on pinyon jay distribution information and the habitat characteristics and species composition of communities pinyon jays are known to occupy during migration and breeding. Abundance of pinyon jays in the community types listed is variable. Pinyon jays are rarely observed in some of the following communities and are quite common in others. See Preferred Habitat for more details.

(key to state/province abbreviations)
UNITED STATES AZ CA CO ID IA KS MT NE NV NM OK OR SD TX UT WA WY
CANADA SK
MEXICO B.C.N. Chih.

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This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [20]:

1 Northern Pacific Border

2 Cascade Mountains

3 Southern Pacific Border

4 Sierra Mountains

5 Columbia Plateau

6 Upper Basin and Range

7 Lower Basin and Range

8 Northern Rocky Mountains

9 Middle Rocky Mountains

10 Wyoming Basin

11 Southern Rocky Mountains

12 Colorado Plateau

13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont

15 Black Hills Uplift

16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands

Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus is a permanent resident of the foothills and lower mountain slopes of the western and south-western USA and northern Baja California, Mexico. In the USA, it is found from central Oregon east to western South Dakota and south to central New Mexico and western Oklahoma^1,2. In years when pine crops fail it becomes irruptive, with individuals often dispersing far outside their normal range^1,2. Owing mainly to habitat loss, this species has suffered a population decline of 36.9% per decade since 1966 (and 59% per decade between 1993 and 2002, but these trends are less reliable owing to small sample sizes^3,4.

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Unknown/Undetermined

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: Resident: central Oregon, east-central Montana, western South Dakota, south to northern Baja California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, and western Oklahoma. Occurs irregularly to southern Washington, northern Idaho, southwestern Saskatchewan, throughout Great Basin, Nebraska, Kansas, central Texas, and northern mainland of Mexico (Terres 1980).

The pinyon jay is widely distributed throughout the foothills and mountainous regions of the western and south-western regions of the USA. At its northern end, the pinyon jay's range runs from central Oregon, east to western South Dakota, extending southwards, on the western side, all the way to southern California and Arizona and, on the eastern side, through Wyoming and Colorado down to New Mexico (3). In years when food is scarce, large flocks will travel long distances, and have been found as far as western Texas, Mexico and even British Columbia (5).

Length: 27 cm

Weight: 103 grams

More info for the term: cover

Pinyon jays utilize pinyon, western juniper [116] and ponderosa pine [10,49] trees for cover.

Roosting sites rarely occur in the last area that was used for foraging that day. Before roosting, a flock of pinyon jays in northern Arizona flew 1 to 3 miles (1.6- 4.8 km) from the feeding site. Roosting birds clumped together in groups of 3 to 5 individuals [10].

More info for the term: forbs

In addition to the plant communities listed above, pinyon jays have been seen nesting in agricultural fields that have lain fallow for 20-40 years, 10 miles (16 km) northeast of Flagstaff, Arizona. Predominant grasses and forbs growing in the fields included grama (Bouteloua spp.), sunflower (Helianthus spp.), spiderflower (Cleome spp.), mullein (Verbascum spp.), Russian-thistle (Salsola spp.), povertyweed (Monolepis spp.), pigweed (Amaranthus spp.), goosefoot (Chenopodium spp.), sagebrush (Artemisia spp.), and aster (Aster spp.) [10].

In a study conducted in Washington County in southwestern Utah by Webb [131], pinyon jays occurred in the Great Basin-Mohave Desert ecotone, dominated by blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima).

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This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

More info for the term: cover

SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [115]:

107 Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass

109 Ponderosa pine shrubland

110 Ponderosa pine-grassland

209 Montane shrubland

212 Blackbush

401 Basin big sagebrush

402 Mountain big sagebrush

403 Wyoming big sagebrush

411 Aspen woodland

412 Juniper-pinyon woodland

413 Gambel oak

504 Juniper-pinyon pine woodland

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This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the term: cover

SAF COVER TYPES [43]:

16 Aspen

206 Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir

209 Bristlecone pine

210 Interior Douglas-fir

216 Blue spruce

217 Aspen

218 Lodgepole pine

219 Limber pine

220 Rocky Mountain juniper

232 Redwood

237 Interior ponderosa pine

238 Western juniper

239 Pinyon-juniper

241 Western live oak

243 Sierra Nevada mixed conifer

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This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: shrub

KUCHLER [71] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:

K006 Redwood forest

K010 Ponderosa shrub forest

K011 Western ponderosa forest

K012 Douglas-fir forest

K017 Black Hills pine forest

K018 Pine-Douglas-fir forest

K019 Arizona pine forest

K022 Great Basin pine forest

K023 Juniper-pinyon woodland

K024 Juniper steppe woodland

K031 Oak-juniper woodland

K038 Great Basin sagebrush

K039 Blackbrush

K055 Sagebrush steppe

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

ECOSYSTEMS [50]:

FRES19 Aspen-birch

FRES20 Douglas-fir

FRES21 Ponderosa pine

FRES23 Fir-spruce

FRES25 Larch

FRES26 Lodgepole pine

FRES27 Redwood

FRES29 Sagebrush

FRES30 Desert shrub

FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe

FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub

FRES35 Pinyon-juniper

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

Comments: Pinyon-juniper woodland, less frequently pine; in nonbreeding season, also occurs in scrub oak and sagebrush (AOU 1983). Nests in shrubs or trees (e.g., pine, oak, or juniper), about 1.5-9 m above ground.

The pinyon jay occupies forest composed predominantly of pinyon pines and junipers, located in the region between lowland desert scrub and pine forests of the upper mountain slopes (4). This species can also be found occupying other habitats such as sagebrush, scrub oak woodland and higher-altitude ponderosa pine forests (6).

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Does not migrate, but may wander long distances in search of food when seed crop is low (Ryser 1985). Flocks may also move altitudinally in search of food.

More info for the terms: forbs, litter, tree

Pinyon jays are morphologically and behaviorally specialized to exploit pinyon seeds for food [10,83]. Pinyon seeds are heavy and wingless, and not suited for wind dissemination. Their dispersal requires birds, animals, and humans [9,21,29,54,56,72,75]. The seeds of the Colorado pinyon and singleleaf pinyon are very nutritious. Colorado pinyon seeds contain 14% protein, 62% to 71% fat, and 18% carbohydrate. Singleleaf pinyon seeds contain 10% protein, 23% fat, and 54% carbohydrate. Both contain all of the amino acids and abundant phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, and other nutrients [72]. Pinyon cones require 3 growing seasons to mature [55]; however, seeds within 1 year old green cones can be eaten by the pinyon jay and are ripe by the end of August [72]. Each cone contains approximately 20 seeds [58]. Ponderosa pine seeds are also an important food for the pinyon jay [10,41,49].

In addition to pinyon and ponderosa pine seeds, pinyon jays eat Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata) seeds [76], limber pine (P. flexilis) seeds, and juniper berries [10]. Insects [18,38,75,83,87] such as caterpillar (Lepidoptera) larvae [83,86], beetles (Coleoptera), grasshoppers (Orthoptera), and ants (Hymenoptera) [86] make up a large portion of their diet. Spiders (Araneae) [83] are commonly eaten, and cultivated grains [75,83,86] including corn, sorghum, beans, barley, oats, and wheat are consumed during winter months [75,83,86]. Pinyon jays have also been noted ingesting soil around salt blocks for cattle [10].

Nestlings eat insects [10,18,75,87], soft plants [10], and pinyon seeds when they are plentiful [75,83].

Foraging behavior: Pinyon jays form flocks of 50 to more than 500 [72,75,87] and occasionally thousands of individuals, that begin to forage together in late August [72,75]. Flocking may be an adaptive strategy to increase search efficiency and reduce predation [18,88,89]. Pinyon jays must travel long distances in search of cones during years when almost no pinyon or ponderosa pine cones are produced in an area. Different flocks may criss-cross each other within an area and keep in contact by vocalizations.

Flocks are sometimes formed with the hairy woodpecker (Picoides villosus), downy woodpecker (P. pubescens), northern flicker (Coloptes auratus), Clark's nutcracker, and European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) for a portion of the year, but these species are not important for the maintenance of the flock. The benefits of interspecific flocking are probably for protection from predators during feeding and to assist in locating locally abundant but scattered food [11].

Pinyon jays forage on the ground and in dead, fallen trees for insects and cached seeds. They also forage in the crevices of live trees for cached pinyon seeds, feed on the tips of ponderosa pine branches where new growth has occurred, and forage in the canopy for pinyon and ponderosa pine cones [10]. If a cone is ripe but closed, the pinyon jay removes it to a place where it can be held open with the bird's feet. Then the bird hammers the cone open with its bill [87]. Pinyon jays can differentiate between filled and empty seeds by a combination of color, weight, and sound produced by clicking seeds with their bills [10,72,83]. Pinyon jays can hold up to 43 ponderosa pine seeds [10] and 56 pinyon seeds in their expandable esophagus [9,83].

Caching: Cached seeds provide energy for gonad development, courtship, nest building, egg laying and incubation [75]. Pinyon jays travel up to 7.5 miles (12 km) [10,72,83] to cache pinyon and ponderosa pine seeds for later use [10,29,60,72,75,83,87,89]. Seed caching is most common in the fall [72,75,119]. Cached Colorado pinyon seeds comprise up to 90% of the pinyon jay's diet from November through February [75]. One to 7 seeds are placed in each cache [9], and a single pinyon jay can cache more than 20,000 seeds in 1 season [75]. A flock of pinyon jays in New Mexico was estimated to cache 4.5 million seeds in 1 year [83]. Pinyon jays may recache seeds to avoid seed theft by Steller's jays (Cyanocitta stellerii) [119].

Seeds are cached on and off of the ground, depending on the season. Seeds are cached on the ground in areas with sparse vegetation and exposed, well-drained soils [9]. Seeds are buried in the litter of dead needles and twigs [10,72], and between organic material and mineral soil [9]. Seeds are cached close to the trunk of trees [10], most often on the south side where snow melts most quickly [9,10,72,83]. Ground-caching stops when snow covers the ground [9].

Pinyon jays have been observed caching a significantly (P<0.01) greater number of seeds in above-ground sites during winter. Most seeds were cached in the crevices of tree bark. This was probably due to cold ground temperatures and snow accumulation [119].

A flock of pinyon jays occupying residential areas near Flagstaff, Arizona, was observed removing and caching sunflower seeds, Colorado pinyon seeds, peanuts, and millet from bird feeders [119].

Pinyon jays can remember specific locations where their conspecifics cached seeds for at least 2 days. They can remember general locations of cached seeds for at least 7 days. Observational spatial memory may have evolved as a consequence of cache dependence, as a consequence of caching in flocks, and/or a combination of the 2 [19].

Diet due to season: Pinyon jays forage mainly on pinyon seeds in late summer [10,29,60,72,75,82,83,87,88,89] and ponderosa pine seeds in fall and early winter [10,41]. A flock of pinyon jays in Flagstaff, Arizona, spent 80% of their time foraging in ponderosa pine forests in late November and early December, and 20% of their time foraging in both an open meadow dominated by grasses and forbs and pinyon-juniper woodlands. When snow was present in the meadow, the flock spent 60% of its time in the pinyon-juniper woodlands where snow seldom covered the ground [10].

In the fall and winter, pinyon jays have been noted eating Gambel oak (Quercus gambelii) acorns in Gambel oak communities in New Mexico, Utah, and Arizona [80].

Comments: Eats pinyon and other pine seeds, berries, small seeds, and grain. Also insects (larvae, nymphs, and adults); beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars, ants, etc. May eat bird eggs, hatchlings. Communally caches large numbers of seeds.

More info for the term: tree

Predation can be high for pinyon jays [36]; however, flocking, colonial nesting, and mobbing may deter predators [10,36,89]. In a study by Balda and Bateman [10], near Flagstaff, Arizona, 4-12 pinyon jays of a flock acted as sentinels, positioned at a high vantage point in a tree, waiting silently for an intruder while the flock was feeding. If an intruder approached, a warning call caused the flock to cease feeding and hide in the trees.

Pinyon jays have been seen mobbing great horned owls (Bubo virginianus) [10,88], sharp-shinned hawks (Accipiter striatus), Cooper's hawks (A. cooperii), red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) [10], and common gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) [10,88].

In a study conducted by Marzluff [88] in Flagstaff, Arizona, 122 pinyon jays nests were located and studied between 1981-1986. The percentages of identified predation events on pinyon jays were: ravens and crows (Corvus spp.) 76.2%; Steller's jays, Abert's squirrels (Sciurus aberti), and rock squirrels (Spermophilus variegatus) 18.0%; ground predators including snakes (Squamata), gray foxes, and domestic cats (Felis silvestris) 4.1%; and accipiters 1.6% [88]. Mexican spotted owls (Strix occidentalis lucida) have also been seen consuming pinyon jays [120,127].

Incubating females are sometimes pulled from their nests at night [83]. Female pinyon jays may be vulnerable to nocturnal and diurnal predators because they are extremely reluctant to leave their nests. Because pinyon jays breed in loose colonies, a predator attuned to finding nests could potentially specialize on incubating or brooding females [36].

More info for the terms: density, eruption, fire regime, fire suppression, fuel, fuel continuity, natural, prescribed burn, severity, stand-replacing fire, tree, wildfire

According to Finch and others [44], the effects of fire on birds and their habitat vary with: 1) the intensity and extent of the fire; 2) temporal scales; 3) life history characteristics of the bird species; and 4) whether or not salvage logging occurs following fire. Severe fires alter the forest structure more than low-severity fires, and a stand-replacing fire may result in the replacement of a species with a different species in an area. Large, intense burns may greatly alter bird habitat in the short-term but may be necessary for long-term maintenance of some forest types [65]. Fire may be beneficial to certain birds whose life history characteristics include cavity-nesting, timber-drilling, grain collecting, and fly-catching due to increased nesting habitat and food supplies [22,25,28,61,63,65,118,124]. Salvage logging may reduce the benefits of fire to birds who utilize snags for cavity-nesting and foraging [65].

Due to the importance of the pinyon [56,72,75,83,87,105] and ponderosa pine [10,41,49,72] to pinyon jays, the FIRE REGIMES for pinyon-juniper woodlands and ponderosa pine forests of the western United States will be focused upon in this section.

Pinyon-juniper woodlands: Prior to European settlement, pinyon-juniper woodlands occupied less than 7,413,000 acres (3,000,000 ha) in the Intermountain West and fire was the most common natural disturbance[58]. Overall, fire is relatively uncommon in pinyon-juniper woodlands due to lack of fuels [53,116]. FIRE REGIMES in this habitat were a mixture of surface and crown fires, depending on site productivity [57,58]. In open stands dominated by grass, fire intervals were 10 years or less [55,58]. Productive sites with many trees experienced patchy fires occurring at intervals of 10 to 50 years. In very densely wooded areas, crown fires may have occurred every 200 to 300 years [55,58].

Following European settlement, pinyon-juniper woodlands expanded into large portions of the southwestern United States previously occupied by grasslands [51,66]. As of 2005, pinyon-juniper woodlands occupy over 74,130,000 acres (30,000,000 ha) [51], a 10-fold increase since European settlement. This is due to livestock grazing [54,55,66,97,104,109,111], which reduces fine fuels, and the resulting decrease in fire frequencies [66,97,104,109,111]. Climate change and invasive plant species have also altered the fire regime in pinyon-juniper woodlands [109]. For more details about the FIRE REGIMES in pinyon-juniper woodlands, see Colorado pinyon and singleleaf pinyon.

Because the fire regime in pinyon-juniper woodlands has changed from a mixture of surface and crown fires to more consistent high-severity, stand-replacement burns, bird species such as the pinyon jay are likely to be negatively affected due to their requirement for live, mature trees [99,113].

Most pinyon seeds cached by pinyon jays have a "reasonable" probability of surviving fire depending on the microhabitat of the cache [55]. Undershrub and tree microhabitats experience higher soil temperatures during a fire than sparsely vegetated sites [133], and seeds buried in these areas would be expected to experience the highest seed mortality [29]. In the Sheeprock Mountain Range within the Vernon division of the Wasatch National Forest in Utah, singleleaf pinyon seedlings appeared 22 years following a fire of unknown severity and did not dominate the site until after 70-80 years [13].

Pinyon jay populations may respond positively or negatively to fire. The response of wildlife populations to prescribed burning in pinyon-juniper woodlands was studied by Mason [91] in the White River area of the Humboldt National Forest, Nevada. The project was divided into 4 separate but interrelated subdivisions. Twelve burns were conducted during the spring and fall of 1974 and 1975, and ranged in size between 2 and 60 acres (0.8-24.3 ha). A total of 155 bird transects were run in 1974 and 1975. The mean numbers and total numbers of pinyon jays per transect were highest in unburned areas [91]:

Year

1974 1975

Burn edge

Treatment Burned Unburned Burned Unburned Mean no. birds/transect 0.6 1.5 0.4 0.7 0.1 Total no. birds/transect 11 29 16 32 5

In a similar study project by Mason [92], the response of wildlife populations to prescribed burning in pinyon-juniper woodlands was examined in the White Pine Ranger District of the Humboldt National Forest, Nevada. Details about the severity and time of year that the prescribed burn was conducted were not given. A total of 150 transects were run in 1974 and 1975, with 47% in burned areas, 43% in unburned areas and 10% in ecotone areas. The average number of all bird species sighted per transect was highest in burned areas. Prescribed burning in patches increased the density of all wildlife species due to the availability of a variety of habitat types throughout the year.

Following numerous fires across the western United States in 2002, Project Feeder Watch participants reported changes in the abundance of birds, including the pinyon jay. More pinyon jays were seen at residential bird feeders than in previous years. In Utah, following a 20,000 acre (8,094 ha) severe fire, pinyon jays numbering as many 160 at a time showed up at residential bird feeders for the first time in 30 years, indicating that they were leaving their native habitat in search of supplemental food at feeding stations [67].

Ponderosa pine forests: Ponderosa pine forests in the southwestern United States have been used by humans for at least 12,000 years, and frequent low-intensity fires were part of these forests' evolutionary history [106]. Logging, grazing, fire suppression, and climate change have caused a general decline of these forests for the past 150 years [106,112]. From 1850 to 1900, low-intensity fires occurred at intervals of 2 to 12 years. According to Covington and Moore [35], fire suppression in the past 100 years has caused "decreased decomposition rates, stagnated nutrient cycles, eruption of insects and diseases, ecosystem simplification, increased vertical fuel continuity due to dense sapling and pole patches, higher severity and destructive potential of wildfire, decreased stream flow and on-site water balance, less wildlife habitat for species dependent of herbaceous vegetation, and greater canopy closure and landscape homogeneity.&quot For more details about the FIRE REGIMES in ponderosa pine forests, see interior ponderosa pine, Pacific ponderosa pine and Arizona pine.

Three years following the 1996 Horseshoe and Hochderffer wildfires in ponderosa pine habitat in the Coconino National Forest in northern Arizona, bird counts were performed during the breeding and nonbreeding season. Details about the severity of the fire and time of year that the fire occurred were not given. The number of pinyon jays was greatest on severely burned areas during the nonbreeding season. The reason for this response was not discussed [24]:

Number of birds   Breeding season Nonbreeding season Unburned 17 2 Moderately burned 36 23 Severely burned 33 152

The following table provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where pinyon jay is important. For further information, see the FEIS review of the dominant species listed below.

Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years) sagebrush steppe Artemisia tridentata/Pseudoroegneria spicata 20-70 [103] basin big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. tridentata 12-43 [110] mountain big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana 15-40 [5,27,96] Wyoming big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis 10-70 (x=40) [128,136] blackbrush Coleogyne ramosissima <35 to <100 juniper-oak savanna Juniperus ashei-Quercus virginiana <35 western juniper Juniperus occidentalis 20-70 Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum <35 [103] western larch Larix occidentalis 25-350 [4,16,37] Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir Picea engelmannii-Abies lasiocarpa 35 to >200 blue spruce* Picea pungens 35-200 [3] pinyon-juniper Pinus-Juniperus spp. <35 [103] Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine P. aristata 9-55 [39,40] Mexican pinyon Pinus cembroides 20-70 [98,122] Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine* Pinus contorta var. latifolia 25-340 [15,16,123] Sierra lodgepole pine* Pinus contorta var. murrayana 35-200 [3] Colorado pinyon Pinus edulis 10-400+ [46,58,69,103] Pacific ponderosa pine* Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa 1-47 [3] interior ponderosa pine* Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum 2-30 [3,8,78] Arizona pine Pinus ponderosa var. arizonica 2-15 [8,33,114] quaking aspen (west of the Great Plains) Populus tremuloides 7-120 [3,59,95] Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir* Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca 25-100 [3,5,6] oak-juniper woodland (Southwest) Quercus-Juniperus spp. <35 to <200 [103] live oak  Quercus virginiana 10 to<100 [129] redwood Sequoia sempervirens 5-200 [3,45,120] *fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species review

As of 2006, no research directly investigates pinyon jay mortality due to fire. In general, fire can directly affect birds by causing mortality or reduced reproduction [101]. For adult birds, mortality is minor; however, modifications in food supply and habitat occur, as well as changes in the abundance of competitors and predators [108]. If fires occur during the breeding season, mortality of nestlings or fledglings is possible, and adults birds may experience reduced reproduction rates [101].

Complex social organization; gregarious. Lives in loose flocks of multiple breeding pairs and their offspring from previous nesting seasons. The flock has an established home range but may wander to other areas in search of food. During nesting season flocks of yearlings may form. Nesting success often is low due to predation or severe weather.

Maximum longevity: 11 years (wild)

Nests when and where adequate numbers of pine seeds are available. Clutch size is 3-6 (usually 3-4). Incubation, by female (fed by male), lasts 15-17 days. Young are tended by both adults (and sometimes by young of previous nestings), leave nest in about 3 weeks (Harrison 1978). Adults remain paired throughout the year. Breeds in loose scattered colonies. In Arizona, pair bonds apparently monogamous, perennial, lasted average of 2.5 years; males initiated breeding at average age of 2 years, females at 1.6 years; deserted females incapable of rearing offspring (Marzluff and Balda 1988).

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.

There are 6 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.  Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.

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Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 6
Specimens with Barcodes: 7
Species With Barcodes: 1

Information on state-level protected status of animals in the United States is available at NatureServe, although recent changes in status may not be included.

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Contributor/s

Justification

History

• 2004
  Vulnerable

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: NH - Possibly Extirpated

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List (1).

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

The key threat to the pinyon jay is the loss of pinyon-juniper forest, with which its life-history is so intrinsically linked. In the past, the main source of this habitat loss was through the clearance of the forest for firewood, lumber and, in particular, to convert the land into pasture for grazing livestock (3) (6). Today, clearance for pasture persists in many regions, and is compounded by widespread urban expansion (6). Along with deliberate forest clearance, forest fires are also a threat to the pinyon jay's habitat. A long-standing policy to put out all forest fires as quickly as possible has led to large amounts of vegetation accumulating because the smaller, natural wildfires that would have kept this growth under control were prevented (6). In the late 1990s, this accumulated vegetation resulted in massive, uncontrolled wildfires consuming vast areas of forest (3). To stop this reoccurring, current fire prevention policies involve widespread thinning of pinyon-juniper forest, which reduces wild fires, but removes sources of food and nesting sites for the pinyon jay (3) (6). In addition to these factors, large areas of pinyon pine have, as a result of drought, suffered from infestation by the pinyon engraver beetle, which in some localities has caused up to 90 percent of the trees to die (6).

More info for the terms: fire management, wildfire

Very few studies have examined the effects of wildfire or prescribed burning on southwestern bird populations [24], and more data are needed to make management recommendations. The data currently available suggest that pinyon jays respond negatively to severe fire due to their reliance on mature pinyon and ponderosa pine trees for seeds [91,92], an important consideration when determining whether or not to conduct prescribed burning [70]. Pinyon jays are highly mobile and due to their gregarious behavior, flocking may assist in increasing their search efficiency for food sources [18,88,89] in areas that have not been burned. This may increase their chances of survival following fire.

For more detailed suggestions on the fire management of trees important to the pinyon jay in pinyon-juniper woodlands, and in ponderosa pine forests, see Colorado pinyon, singleleaf pinyon, Utah juniper, interior ponderosa pine, Pacific ponderosa pine, and Arizona pine.

More info for the terms: competition, cover, density, fire exclusion, fire regime

Pinyon-juniper woodlands: Due to the mutualistic relationship between the pinyon pine and the pinyon jay, "their interaction needs to be conserved" [56,105]. The singleleaf pinyon and Colorado pinyon do not produce cones until 35 years, and 25 years of age respectively. Therefore, the general recommendation for the preservation of pinyon jay populations is to manage for large, mature, cone-bearing trees [31,77,100] and preserve pinyon-juniper woodlands [1,34,77,100], as well as other habitats utilized by the pinyon jay [10,80,112,132].

Arizona Partners in Flight [77] recommends maintaining a stable or increasing population trend of pinyon jays throughout pinyon-juniper woodlands in the Colorado Plateau and Mogollon Rim physiographic regions. Other recommendations include: maintaining extensive stands of cone-bearing pinyon trees; identifying and retaining traditional home ranges; determining how many mature stands of pinyon-juniper stands exist; encouraging small-scale forest openings to reduce erosion in dense, mature stands; using appropriate livestock and/or wild ungulate stocking rates to promote grass and herbaceous growth; and considering common raven (C. corax) control if their increased numbers are affecting pinyon jay nest success. Additional information about the research and outreach needs for the pinyon jay can be found in the Arizona Partners in Flight Bird Conservation Plan.

Colorado Partners in Flight [31] suggests managing for large and old age-class pinyon pine trees for high seed production. Maintaining or increasing pinyon jay distribution and abundance is also recommended.

New Mexico Partners in Flight [100] lists the pinyon jay as a "high responsibility" species that requires large stands of mature pinyon pine and ponderosa pine trees covering extensive areas for foraging. For optimal habitat conditions, they recommend in areas where pinyon-juniper species are dominant, creating or maintaining 6 contiguous nonfragmented blocks of 500 acres (202.3 ha) each within 5,000 acre (2,023 ha) blocks.

According to the Cornell Lab of Ornithology [34], pinyon jay populations are declining due to the destruction of pinyon-juniper woodlands for grazing and changes in the fire regime.

Balda and Bateman [10] recommend that, to preserve pinyon jay populations, patches of pinyon-juniper and pure pinyon pine habitats be a minimum of 7 square miles (18 km²).

In a study by Albert and others [1], the number of occurrences of pinyon jays decreased in thinned pinyon-juniper woodlands compared to control plots. In the pinyon-juniper woodland, Paulin and others [102] recommend a landscape mosaic that intersperses patches of cover for birds with openings for browsing and foraging.

Due to their dependence on mature, cone-bearing pinyon trees, pinyon jays may be negatively affected by the removal of trees for livestock in pinyon-juniper woodlands [137].

In a study by Goguen and Mathews [52] in northeastern New Mexico, the mean number of detections of pinyon jays was not significantly different (P= 0.93) in moderate, 3-season cattle-grazed areas versus ungrazed areas in pinyon-juniper woodlands [52]:

Treatment Mean number of detections Standard error Ungrazed 1.02 0.38 Grazed 0.95 0.37

Gambel oak: In Gambel oak woodlands of north-central Utah, the pinyon jay is a local transient species from adjacent habitats [62,85]. Pinyon jays use these woodlands in the fall and winter to forage on Gambel oak acorns. The proximity of Gambel oak woodlands to urban centers may cause the pinyon jay to experience substantial habitat loss and fragmentation in the near future. Leidolf and others [80] recommend that in order to maintain viable bird populations in Gambel oak habitat, federal and state land managers should consider nongame bird populations in their management plans. A recommendation for more research to be conducted on the response of birds to specific management actions such as prescribed burning, grazing, and cutting is also suggested.

Ponderosa pine: From 1911 to 1961, the population of pinyon jays in ponderosa pine forests of the southwestern United States decreased. This may be related to logging, fire exclusion, hunting, grazing, and herbicide and pesticide use. Canopy foragers, such as the pinyon jay, have been affected the most [112].

Pinyon jays may or may not benefit from livestock grazing in ponderosa pine habitat in the southwestern United States. The degree to which livestock grazing affects birds depends on several factors including: 1) number of animals grazing in an area; 2) timing of grazing; and 3) type of grazing system used [68]. Habitat changes occur as grazing increases [68], affecting birds [44]. Grazing generally leads to an increase in the density of ponderosa pine due to less competition of seedlings with understory vegetation [32]. Since pinyon jays prefer open ponderosa pine habitats, they may be negatively affected [10]. However, grazing may benefit pinyon jays because the increased density of trees such as ponderosa pine, oak (Quercus spp.), juniper, and pinyon provide more food sources [44].

Sagebrush: To improve most bird and animal species populations in big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) habitat, Welch [132] recommends that in areas where the sagebrush canopy exceeds 20%, sagebrush not be thinned or killed.

Other habitats: In 1981 and 1982, Medin and others [94] collected bird census data in several habitat types near and on Wheeler Peak in east-central Nevada along an elevational gradient of 5,250-11,400 feet (1,600-3,475 m). Twenty years later, Woodyard and others [135] recensused 6 of his 11 plots to determine how bird populations changed over time. The pinyon jay population decreased in 3 of the 4 of the habitat types from 1982 to 2002 [135]:

  1982 2002

Mean number of birds/10 visits

Wyoming big sagebrush (A.t. ssp. wyomingensis) 0.1 1.0 Pinyon-juniper woodlands 10.0 2.4 Mountain big sagebrush (A.t. ssp. vaseyana) 0.3 0.0  

Total number of birds sighted in 70 censuses

Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine 104 34

Conservation Actions

Although there are no current land management practices in place to protect the pinyon jay's habitat, it is on the watch lists of the conservation organisations The National Audubon Society (5) and Partners in Flight (8). The Colorado branch of Partners in Flight has recommended that the pinyon-juniper habitat be managed so that during forest thinning, the older, cone-bearing pinyon pines are left and the younger trees selectively removed so that food sources for the pinyon jay remain available (9). There is also a need to protect this species' nesting areas from urban development, discouraging the building of roads nearby, which results in nest abandonment due to disturbance (6). While estimates of the pinyon jay's population totalled a substantial 4,100,000 birds in 2003, this population is believed to be rapidly declining by an average of almost four percent per year. It is, therefore, critical that land management practices are introduced that will help to protect this remarkable bird (3).