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Given the large geographic range and migratory status of some subspecies, sandhill cranes inhabit a variety of plant communities. Sandhill cranes usually require a mosaic of plant communities at any given time to provide habitat for a range of activities including nesting, foraging, and roosting. Sandhill cranes are often associated with wetland plant communities but are also found in tundra, savanna, grassland, riparian forest, and boreal forest plant communities. The following section summarizes general plant community associations for each of the 6 subspecies of sandhill crane. Subspecies are organized by their migratory or nonmigratory status. See Preferred habitat for detailed information on plant communities used for specific life history activities.
Migratory subspecies: This section is organized by plant communities used in the breeding season or used while staging, migrating, or wintering.
Plant communities used by migratory subspecies in the breeding season:
Canadian sandhill crane: There is little information available on plant communities used by Canadian sandhill cranes during the breeding season. Reviews state that Canadian sandhill cranes occur in boreal forests, aspen parklands [124], muskeg and other shallow wetland communities, open and forested bogs, and other boreal forest wetland types [102].
Greater sandhill crane:
Eastern population: In Maine, sandhill cranes were observed in areas dominated by sphagnum moss (Sphagnum spp.) in mounds <10 feet (3 m) high, American woollyfruit sedge (Carex lasiocarpa), and scattered leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata). Other common herbaceous plants included sheathed cottonsedge (Eriophorum vaginatum), white beaksedge (Rhynchospora alba), cattail (Typha spp.), threeway sedge (Dulichium arundinaceum), Northwest Territory sedge (C. utriculata), boreal bog sedge (C. magellanica), buckbean (Menyanthes trifoliata), cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon), pitcher-plant (Sarracenia purpurea), and spoonleaf sundew (Drosera intermedia). Common shrubs included sweetgale (Myrica gale) and speckled alder [104].
In northern Michigan, greater sandhill cranes occurred in bogs, where common plants included bog Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), leatherleaf, bog laurel (Kalmia polifolia), bog rosemary (Andromeda glaucophylla), trailing arbutus (Epigaea repens) and wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens), with neighboring trees of tamarack (Larix laricina), black spruce (Picea mariana), red pine (P. resinosa), jack pine (P. banksiana), and eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) [158]. At the Seney National Wildlife Refuge, Upper Peninsula, Michigan, sandhill cranes occurred in an area that was 54% marsh, grassland, and shrub, 7% lowland conifer, 7% open water, and 2% lowland hardwood forest. Predominant vegetation in marshes and along pool edges was broadleaf cattail (Typha latifolia), sedges (Carex spp.), hardstem bulrush (Schoenoplectus acutus), soft-stem bulrush (S. tabernaemontani), and speckled alder (Alnus incana subsp. rugosa) [100], with emergents covering 43% of the wetlands. Lowland conifer habitat consisted of black spruce bogs with an understory of ericaceous shrubs and sphagnum. Bog forests containing tamarack, black spruce, and red maple (Acer rubrum) were interspersed with patches of sedge marsh and strips of upland sand ridges supporting eastern white, red, and jack pines [8]. Lowland hardwood forests consisted primarily of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) and paper birch (Betula papyrifera) [100]. In southern Michigan, greater sandhill cranes occurred on irregular, marshy "arms" extending between wooded ridges, tamarack peninsulas, and ash-maple (Fraxinus spp.-Acer spp.) bottomland [155]. Also in Michigan, sandhill cranes occurred in a mosaic of cattail- and sedge-dominated marshes, forested wetlands containing tamarack and various shrubs, and upland forests dominated by second-growth oaks (Quercus spp.) and hickories [53].
In central Wisconsin, greater sandhill cranes occurred in floating sedge bogs, shallow grass, sedge and cattail marshes, and flooded aspen flats. The area was a mixture of low marsh basins and slightly higher sand islands divided by numerous drainage ditches. Basins once held timbered swamps, bogs, and open marshes, while islands once held stands of eastern white and red pine. Repeated fires following artificial drainage consumed most of the peat and forest duff in sandy uplands. Aspen (Populus spp.) and willow (Salix spp.) established on most of the peat, while jack pines and scrub oaks replaced the eastern white and red pines, though some large peat areas remained. Some tamarack-black spruce swamps and leatherleaf-bog Labrador tea bogs persisted; both are associated with grass marshes and vast tracts of even-aged aspen [45]. Greater sandhill cranes were observed on the forested floodplain of the Upper Mississippi River on the borders of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa. The forest community was dominated by silver maple (Acer saccharinum), elm (Ulmus spp.), green ash (F. pennsylvanica), swamp white oak (Q. bicolor), eastern cottonwood (P. deltoides), hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), and river birch (B. nigra) [68].
Rocky Mountain population: In northwestern Colorado, greater sandhill cranes occurred in open parkland, with sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) -covered ridges interspersed with willow-lined drainages. Open parkland was surrounded by quaking aspen mixed with lodgepole pine (P. contorta), fir (Abies sp.), and blue spruce (P. pungens) at higher elevations [15]. In northern Utah and southwestern Wyoming, greater sandhill cranes used a landscape that included pastures (55%), small grain fields (19%), riparian areas (8%), alfalfa (Medicago sativa) fields (6%), corn (Zea sp.) fields (3%), and other plant communities (9%) [97,98]. In southeastern Idaho, sandhill cranes occurred in a 22,000 acre (8,900 ha) marsh; approximately 80% to 90% of the marsh was covered with emergent vegetation, mainly hardstem bulrush and lesser amounts of broadleaf cattail [31]. In eastern Idaho, breeding habitat included bulrush-Baltic rush-spikerush (Scirpus spp.-Juncus balticus-Eleocharis sp.) and sedge bands surrounding shallow wetlands, beaver-induced wetland ponds along spring creeks, dense cattail bands along a river drainage, mixed willow/sedge bands along riparian corridors, and open sedge/rush basins. Foraging sites adjacent to nesting areas were primarily composed of sagebrush, cinquefoil (Potentilla spp.), rabbitbrush (Ericameria bloomeri), bunch grasses, upland forbs, quaking aspen, and cottonwoods (Populus spp.) [101].
Central Valley population: In south-central Washington, greater sandhill cranes occurred in wet meadows with willows, sedges, tufted hairgrass (Deschampsia cespitosa), and timber oatgrass (Danthonia intermedia). Wet meadow stringers occurred between forested stands of lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), grand fir (A. grandis), ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa), and western larch (L. occidentalis) [77]. At the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge in southeastern Oregon, most breeding occurred in marsh vegetation [64,65]. Coarse emergent vegetation in this area included hardstem bulrush, broadleaf cattail, and broadfruit bur-reed (Sparganium eurycarpum) [83]. In eastern Oregon, greater sandhill crane breeding habitat included 6 wetland complexes adjacent to big sagebrush (A. tridentata) or ponderosa pine habitats [84]. In northeastern California, greater sandhill crane breeding habitat included open wet meadows containing rushes (Juncus spp.), spikerush (Eleocharis spp.), broadfruit bur-reed, grasses, sedges, hardstem bulrush, and broadleaf cattail [82].
Lesser sandhill crane: Lesser sandhill cranes breed in arctic tundra plant communities ([16,70,91,119,158], review by [124]). In the Northwest Territories, lesser sandhill cranes occurred on eskers with 75% lichen cover, primarily bryocaulon lichen (Bryocaulon divergens), and other lichens (Flavocetraria nivalis, F. cucullata). Black crowberry (Empetrum nigrum), bog blueberry (Vaccinium uliginosum), and lingonberry (V. vitis-idaea) were also present [91].
In Alaska, lesser sandhill cranes bred in tundra broken up by major rivers, small ponds, and large lakes. Common vegetation included alders (Alnus spp.), short sedges, grasses, moss, bog Labrador tea, dwarf birch (Betula nana), black crowberry, salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), lingonberry, and dense patches of cotton sedge (Eriophorum sp.). Sandhill cranes also occurred in muskeg with clumps of spruce (Picea spp.) or marshes dominated by sedges and grasses and shallow water. On southern Banks Island, sandhill cranes were found on sand dunes with scattered dune grass [158]. In northwestern Alaska, lesser sandhill cranes bred in the Kobuk River drainage and Kobuk Dunes [103], a transitional area between forest and tundra. The dunes were dominated by balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera), while river valleys were dominated by paper birch, white spruce (Picea glauca), and black spruce forests [119]. On the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska, lesser sandhill cranes bred in an area comprised of heath-marsh tundra mosaics and sedge-grass meadows interspersed with thousands of small ponds [16].
In eastern Siberia lesser sandhill crane breeding habitat consisted of moderately-wet polygonal tundra comprised of hummock mounds surrounded by scattered water. Mosses covered the ground in most areas, forming a 4 to 12 inch (10-30 cm) layer of peat. Other characteristic plants included sedges, cottongrasses (Eriophorum sp.), bluegrasses (Poa spp.), and dwarf willow [159].
Unidentified subspecies (Canadian, greater, or lesser): In the Interlake region of central Manitoba, sandhill cranes occurred in a mosaic of low forested ridges interspersed with low-lying, poorly drained forested muskegs of black spruce and tamarack, open bog and fen muskegs, and small intermittent lakes. Quaking aspen was prevalent in some areas. Elsewhere the forest vegetation was dominated by black and white spruce mixed with poplar (Populus spp.) and paper birch, with jack pine occurring on sandy, well-drained ridges. Muskeg vegetation characteristic of low, poorly drained areas included black spruce, tamarack, sphagnum moss, dwarf birch, ericaceous shrubs, and a variety of sedges, grasses, and rushes. Dominant vegetation of fens included sedges, grasses, bulrushes, broadleaf cattail, willows, and dwarf birch, with scattered black spruce and tamarack. There were limited cereal and hay fields in the vicinity [105].
Plant communities used by migratory subspecies during staging, migrating, and wintering:
Staging: This section is organized into plant community descriptions of 3 major staging areas: the Jasper-Pulaski Fish and Wildlife Area in northwestern Indiana, the Platte River Valley in Nebraska, and the Copper River Delta in Alaska.
Jasper-Pulaski Fish and Wildlife Area: Plant communities around sandhill crane staging areas include a combination of low sand ridges once dominated by black oak forests and prairie marsh grasses, and upland areas with oak-hickory (Carya spp.) forests. Agricultural lands cover a large proportion of the area [88]. The plant communities of seasonally flooded basins and inland fresh meadows vary by location, with some sites dominated by fall panicgrass (Panicum dichotomiflorum), common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium), marigolds (Bidens spp.), and/or rice cutgrass (Leersia oryzoides). American woollyfruit sedge and bluejoint reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis) occur in peripheral areas. Willow and river birch establish on the edges of these wetlands. Inland fresh marshes with wide borders of inland fresh meadow contain marsh grasses and sedges extending from shore, with dense yellow pond-lily (Nuphar lutea), American white waterlily (Nymphaea odorata), and coon's tail (Ceratophyllum demersum) occurring in deeper water. Some areas are dominated by spikerush, American woollyfruit sedge, rice cutgrass, woolgrass (Scirpus cyperinus), or bluejoint reedgrass. Willow, silky dogwood (Cornus amomum), and swamp rose (Rosa palustris) often form dense stands at forest borders. Inland fresh marshes bordered by forests contain dense thickets of common buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), common winterberry (Ilex verticillata), and swamp smartweed (Polygonum hydropiperoides) at the waterline surrounded by pin oak (Q. palustris), river birch, and willow [88].
Platte River: The vegetation of the Platte River Valley includes riparian woodlands, low shrub islands, mudflats along the river channel, and wet meadow grasslands on adjacent river terraces. Riparian woodland consists of open-canopy, widely spaced eastern cottonwood forest with understory species such as eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) and roughleaf dogwood (Cornus drummondii) [26,115]. In some areas, green ash, hackberry, and American elm (U. americana) are common [26]. Low shrub islands contain yellow willow (S. lutea), peachleaf willow (S. amygdaloides), narrowleaf willow (S. exigua), and desert false indigo (Amorpha fruticosa) [26,115]. Temporarily flooded mudflats are dominated by tufted lovegrass (Eragrostis pectinacea), nutsedges (Cyperus spp.), and common cocklebur. Wet meadow grasslands contain Olney threesquare (Scirpus americanus), sedges, and common spikerush (Eleocharis palustris) [26]. Unvegetated sandbars are also present [26,115]. Agricultural lands are abundant in the area [69].
Copper River Delta, Alaska: Lesser sandhill cranes stage along the eastern Copper River Delta, Alaska, an island of open marsh habitat within the western hemlock-Sitka spruce (Tsuga heterophylla-Picea sitchensis) coastal rainforest ecoregion. The 4 major habitat types are medium shrub, wet meadow, salt grass meadow, and intertidal mudflats. Medium shrub habitat consists of dense stands of sweetgale, Lyngbye's sedge (Carex lyngbyei), purple marshlocks (Comarum palustre), and bluejoint (Calamagrostis canadensis), often in standing water ≤1.6 feet (0.5 m). Stringers of Sitka alder (Alnus viridis subsp. sinuata) and Sitka spruce occur along the numerous streambanks and lake margins. Wet meadow habitat occurs on former intertidal salt marsh areas and consists of a mosaic of plant communities ranging from small ponds and wet depressions to higher, well-drained slough banks. The area is dominated by mosses and also contains areas of Sitka spruce, sweetgale, Sitka alder, and willow scrub. Salt grass meadow occurs on former intertidal mudflats, with Ramenk's sedge (Carex ramenskii), goose tongue (Plantago maritima), Pacific silverweed (Argentina egedii), and alkaligrass (Puccinellia spp.) at the mean high tide line. Moss cover dominates higher tide areas. Woody vegetation is absent, and substrates consist of bare mud and silt. The intertidal mudflat habitat is unvegetated except for a sparse growth of macroalgae (Ulva sp.) [51].
Migrating: Sandhill cranes are an uncommon migrant through bunchgrass (Agropyron spp. or Festuca spp.) and sagebrush habitat in Washington and Oregon [122]. In Colorado, a greater sandhill crane migration stopover site is centered on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge, a large complex of marsh habitat surrounded by many small grain fields [148].
Wintering: In the Okefenokee Swamp, Georgia, greater sandhill cranes wintered in a deep peat swamp-marsh complex, consisting of a mosaic of freshwater wetland types, including emergent marshes, shrub swamps, swamp forests, and lakes [13]. Three major marsh types in the area included macrophyte marshes dominated by American white waterlily, goldenclub (Orontium aquaticum), and flattened pipewort (Eriocaulon compressum), herbaceous marshes dominated by emergent graminoids, including maidencane, broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), and sedge, and mixed scrub-shrub marsh with stands of loblolly bay, pondcypress (Taxodium distichum var. imbricarium), fetterbush lyonia (Lyonia lucida), and swamp titi (Cyrilla racemiflora) [14].
In western Texas, lesser sandhill cranes used a variety of habitats in winter, including mixed-grass, shortgrass, and tallgrass prairies. The most abundant grasses included buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides), blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), sideoats grama (B. curtipendula), black grama (B. eriopoda), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), Indiangrass (Sorghastrum sp.), and switchgrass (Panicum sp.) [158]. Also in western Texas, midcontinental populations of sandhill cranes wintered on shortgrass prairie invaded by mesquite (Prosopis sp.) and yucca (Yucca sp.), with sorghum and cotton fields nearby [61].
At the Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge, New Mexico, sandhill cranes wintered in wetlands with yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus), bearded sprangletop (Leptochloa fusca ssp. facicularus), barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli), yellow foxtail (Setaria pumila), cupgrass (Eriochloa spp.), Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense), and fall panicgrass [141].
In the northern Central Valley of California, wintering sandhill cranes occurred in riparian forests dominated by Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii), California sycamore (P. racemosa), northern California walnut (Juglans hindsii), willows, and boxelder (Acer negundo) [54]. Canadian, lesser, and greater sandhill cranes also wintered in the Central Valley in areas where remnants of valley oak (Q. lobata) woodlands, grasslands, and wetlands were interspersed with large areas of agricultural production. Flooded rice (Oryza sativa) lands, pastures, and areas of native and managed marshes were used by sandhill cranes [117].
Some sandhill cranes wintered in the western grasslands of Washington and Oregon. Grasslands were dominated by Roemer's fescue (Festuca idahoensis ssp. roemeria), red fescue (F. rubra), and California oatgrass (Danthonia californica). Some savanna areas had these grasses plus some cover of Oregon white oak (Q. garryanna), ponderosa pine, or Douglas-fir [66].
Nonmigratory subspecies: This section describes plant communities used by the 3 nonmigratory subspecies of the sandhill crane: Cuban, Florida, and Mississippi.
Cuban sandhill crane: Cuban sandhill cranes inhabit dry savannas and pine flats year-round ([42,156], review by [124]). Overstory trees include tropical pine (Pinus tropicalis), Caribbean pine (P. caribaea), Everglades palm (Acoelorraphe wrightii), as well as scattered shrubs [158] such as trumpet tree (Tabebuia lepidophylla) [156].
Florida sandhill crane: Florida sandhill cranes inhabit a mixture of wetland [14,35,113,144,158] and open forest [35,78,113,158] plant communities. Florida sandhill cranes also use open pastures [35,113,158] and agricultural fields [76,113].
In north-central Florida, Florida sandhill cranes were found in persistent and nonpersistent wetlands dominated by maidencane (Panicum hemitomon), pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata), and smartweeds (Polygonum spp.). In areas with deeper water, yellow pond-lily and American white waterlily were the predominant vegetation. Open pasture zones contained Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum), and common carpetgrass (Axonopus fissifolius). Upland sites contained live oak (Q. virginiana), turkey oak (Q. laevis), and longleaf pine (P. palustris), with red maple and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) on the lower, wetter sites. Slash pine (P. elliottii) plantations and fields of corn, peanuts, and hay were also present [113]. Florida sandhill cranes were also found in wide-open prairies that contained stands of cabbage palmetto (Sabal palmetto), either lone or scattered trees intermixed with saw-palmetto (Serenoa repens), and occasional longleaf pine or slash pine. In some areas, stands of live oak, or rarely water oak (Q. nigra), occurred. In lowland regions, redbay (Persea borbonia), sweetgum, baldcypress (Taxodium distichum var. distichum), and red maple were present [158].
In the Green Swamp of Florida, Florida sandhill cranes occurred in a mosaic of pondcypress and swamp with loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus), sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana) [35,158], and swamp bay (Persea palustris); herbaceous marsh; longleaf and slash pine flatwoods; scrub oak (Quercus spp.); orange groves; and bahiagrass pasture containing scattered oak and pine [35].
At the Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, Florida sandhill cranes occurred in wet prairie communities of relatively low stature plants interspersed with stands of sawgrass (Cladium sp.). The dominant plants of the wet prairie community included Tracy's beaksedge (Rhynchospora tracyi) and slim spikerush (Eleocharis elongata). Also present were slough aquatic communities which supported American white waterlily. The wetland complex was broken up by thousands of tree islands varying from a few trees to several hundred acres in size. Major plants on the tree islands included redbay, dahoon (Ilex cassine), wax-myrtle (Myrica cerifera), coco plum (Chrysobalanus interior), laurelleaf greenbrier (Smilax laurifolia), grape (Vitis sp.), and several ferns [144].
In the Okefenokee Swamp, Georgia, Florida sandhill cranes occurred in a mosaic of freshwater wetland types including marshes, shrub swamps, swamp forests, and lakes. Three major marsh types included macrophyte marshes dominated by American white waterlily, goldenclub, and flattened pipewort, herbaceous marshes dominated by emergent graminoids including maidencane, broomsedge bluestem, and sedge, and mixed scrub-shrub marsh with stands of loblolly bay, pondcypress, fetterbush lyonia, and swamp titi [14]. Most of the marshes were formed by fires that burned away peat layers and created openings in formerly forested swampland. Most of the marshes in this area contained peat and had a low pH (reviewed by [12]).
Mississippi sandhill crane: Mississippi sandhill cranes occur in savanna, swamp, and pine woodland plant communities, as well as agricultural areas, in Mississippi. Restored savanna habitats include scattered trees including pondcypress, slash and longleaf pines, shrubs such as inkberry (Ilex glabra), large gallberry (I. coriacea), wax-myrtle, and greenbriar (Smilax spp.), as well as threeawns (Aristida spp.), toothache grass (Ctenium aromaticum), bluestem grasses (Andropogon spp.), and beaksedges (Rynchospora spp.). Forested drainages are found along bayous and creeks, and dominant overstory species include slash and longleaf pines, pondcypress, and black tupelo. Thick midstories of swamp titi and wax-myrtle often develop, while sedges (Cyperaceae) and grasses (Poaceae) dominate in more open drainages and swampy areas [161]. Forested depression swamps contain a mixture of pondcypress and slash and longleaf pines, with several shrub species and an herbaceous understory of sphagnums, spadeleaf (Centella asiatica), western bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum), and beaksedges. Within or along the edges of the swamps in depressions of the savannas are small marsh communities containing Baldwin's nutrush (Scleria baldwinii), sedges, and grasses [151]. Natural and planted pine woodlands are a mixture of longleaf pine and slash pine, with slash pine dominating plantations [126]. Pine plantations have a midstory of inkberry, large gallberry, wax-myrtle, sweetbay, and swamp titi and an understory of threeawn, toothache grass, and panic grasses (Dicanthelium spp.) [161]. Agricultural lands consist of planted yellow nutsedge, corn, ryegrass (Lolium sp.), and sunflowers (Helianthus sp.) [161].