Falco peregrinus

• Fastest animal recorded at speeds in excess of 200m.p.h. (more information)
• WWII japanese airplane Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa (Japanese for Peregrine Falcon) code name Oscar by Allies (more information)
• Names: also known as the "Duck Hawk". A male Peregrine is called a "tiercel" and the female is "falcon". The name "Peregrine" means wanderer.
• Falconry: Falconry (the art of hunting with a raptor) is known back to the time of the Egyptions. In the Middle Ages it was known as the "Sport of Kings." Social rank dictated which species an individual was allowed to hunt with. A baron or duke could use a male Peregrine while you had to be a prince to have a female Peregrine. (more information)

Peregrine Falcons are widely distributed. An aerial hunter, the Peregrine feeds predominantly on avian species and is well known for its tremendous speed when stooping on prey. The population decline of Peregrines in the 1960's caused an environmental awakening with both public and scientific audiences.

Reference

• White, Clayton M., Nancy J. Clum, Tom J. Cade, and W. Grainger Hunt. 2002. Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online.

Peregrines are one of the most widely studied birds. The highlight of that focus occurred during the period of its decline though the species is still researched to date. Reintroduced populations have been banded allowing for examination of dispersal and longevity. Satellite tracking has been done to look at migration. Currently the focus has turned toward genetics.

Reference

• Global Raptor Information Network

Museums and universities throughout the world maintain ornithological and oological research collections. Specimen information is available either via online databases or by direct contact with the institution. Oological collections were used to document pre-DDT era egg shell thickness.

References

• The ORNIS Data Base
• The Field Museum's Bird Collection Database

Peregrine falcons are found worldwide, except for rainforests and cold, dry Arctic regions. They are one of the most widespread terrestrial vertebrate species in the world. Most southern Palearctic and island populations of peregrine falcon are resident, and do not migrate.

Peregrine falcons migrate long distances between breeding and winter ranges. Northernmost populations breed in the tundra of Alaska and Canada, and migrate to central Argentina and Chile. They typically migrate along sea coasts, long lake shores, barrier islands, mountain ranges, or at sea.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Native ); oriental (Native ); ethiopian (Native ); neotropical (Native ); australian (Native )

Other Geographic Terms: cosmopolitan

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) Nearly cosmopolitan; breeds on every continent except Antarctica; absent from high mountains, desert regions of Africa, Asia, and Australia, and from most tropical forests; occasionally reaches Hawaii. In North America, much recovery of populations has occurred, but the large area extending from the western Cascades of Oregon and Washington to the eastern slope of the Big Horn Mountains of Wyoming and Montana and north into the southern provinces of Canada still was largely unoccupied in the early 1990s (The Peregrine Fund 1992).

There are 19 regional variants (subspecies) of peregrine falcon worldwide. They vary considerably in size and color. Like all falcons, peregrine falcons have long, tapered wings and a slim, short tail. In North America they are roughly crow sized, ranging in length from between 36 and 49 cm in males and 45 to 58 cm in females. Wingspan varies from 91 to 112 cm. They weigh an average of 907 g. Like most birds of prey, female peregrine falcons are slightly larger than males. They are typically 15-20% larger and 40-50% heavier than males. Peregrine falcons have slate and blue-gray wings, black bars on their backs and pale underbellies. They have white faces with a black stripe on each cheek and large, dark eyes. Young birds tend to be darker and browner, with streaked, rather than barred, underparts. Plumage doesn't vary seasonally.

Average mass: 907 g.

Range length: 36 to 58 cm.

Range wingspan: 91 to 112 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: female larger

Average mass: 840 g.

Length: 51 cm

Weight: 1500 grams

Differs from merlin (FALCO COLUMBARIUS), prairie falcon (FALCO MEXICANUS), and gyrfalcon (FALCO RUSTICOLUS) in having a broad dark wedge extending down the side of the head; lacks the reddish back of the American kestrel (FALCO SPARVERIUS); lacks the contrasting dark axillaries and underwing coverts of the prairie falcon.

Peregrine falcons prefer open habitats, such as grasslands, tundra, and meadows. They are most common in tundra and coastal areas and rare in sub-tropical and tropical habitats. They nest on cliff faces and crevices. They have recently begun to colonize urban areas because tall buildings are suitable for nesting in this species, and because of the abundance of pigeons as prey items. They have been observed breeding as high as 3600 meters elevation in the Rocky Mountains of North America.

Range elevation: 3600 (high) m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: tundra ; taiga ; desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; chaparral ; forest ; scrub forest ; mountains

Other Habitat Features: urban

Depth range based on 18 specimens in 4 taxa.
Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 2 samples.

Environmental ranges
  Depth range (m): 0 - 0
  Temperature range (°C): 15.249 - 15.876
  Nitrate (umol/L): 0.239 - 0.733
  Salinity (PPS): 33.200 - 33.476
  Oxygen (ml/l): 5.727 - 5.880
  Phosphate (umol/l): 0.392 - 0.419
  Silicate (umol/l): 2.846 - 3.287

Graphical representation

Temperature range (°C): 15.249 - 15.876

Nitrate (umol/L): 0.239 - 0.733

Salinity (PPS): 33.200 - 33.476

Oxygen (ml/l): 5.727 - 5.880

Phosphate (umol/l): 0.392 - 0.419

Silicate (umol/l): 2.846 - 3.287
 
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.

Comments: Various open situations from tundra, moorlands, steppe, and seacoasts, especially where there are suitable nesting cliffs, to mountains, open forested regions, and human population centers (AOU 1983). When not breeding, occurs in areas where prey concentrate, including farmlands, marshes, lakeshores, river mouths, tidal flats, dunes and beaches, broad river valleys, cities, and airports.

Often nests on ledge or hole on face of rocky cliff or crag. River banks, tundra mounds, open bogs, large stick nests of other species, tree hollows, and man-made structures (e.g., ledges of city buildings) are used locally (Cade 1982). Nests typically are situated on ledges of vertical rocky cliffs, commonly with a sheltering overhang (Palmer 1988, Campbell et al 1990). Tundra populations nests typically on rocky cliffs, bluffs, or dirt banks. Ideal locations include undisturbed areas with a wide view, near water, and close to plentiful prey. Substitute man-made sites include tall buildings, bridges, rock quarries, and raised platforms.

See Grebence and White (1989) for information on nesting along the Colorado River system.

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Populations nesting in northern latitudes are highly migratory; those nesting in northern maritime climates, at mid-latitudes, and in the Southern Hemisphere much less so (Cade 1982). Tundra breeders migrate farthest, bypassing those farther south; a few winter in Florida, some in Caribbean, perhaps some in Central America, most in southern South America (Palmer 1988). Breeders from central Alaska migrated through central North America and wintered in southern Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean region, and South America (Britten et al. 1995). Two breeders from southern Utah migrated through western Mexico, and one continued to a wintering site in Nicaragua (Britten et al. 1995).

In the U.S., the Atlantic coast from New Jersey to South Carolina and the barrier islands of the Texas Gulf Coast are important feeding areas for long-distance migrants.

Arrives in northern breeding areas late April-early May; departure begins late August-early September (Johnson and Herter 1989). See Palmer (1988) for further information on timing of migration.

From Padre Island, Texas, a northbound migrant reached south-central Canada in four days, and a southbound migrant passed through Mexico and reached Guatemala in six days (Chavez-Ramirez et al. 1994).

Peregrine falcons prey almost exclusively on birds, which make up 77 to 99% of prey items. The most important set of prey, by biomass, is Columbidae. Birds eaten include mourning doves, pigeons, shorebirds, waterfowl, ptarmigan, grouse, and relatives, and smaller songbirds. They will also eat small reptiles and mammals. Most frequent mammal prey are bats (Tadarida, Eptesicus, Myotis, Pipistrellus), followed by arvicoline rodents (Arvicolinae), squirrels (Sciuridae), and rats (Rattus).

Peregrine falcons most frequently hunt from a perch with a high vantage point, such as a cliff or tall tree. They take flight once prey have been detected. They may also fly or hover to search for prey. In some areas, where they may have to rely on insects, lizards, or mammals for prey, peregrine falcons hunt on foot on the ground.

Peregrine falcons are most successful in capturing prey if they have more height from which to initiate a stoop onto a prey animal. Although peregrine falcons capture their prey with their talons, they generally kill with their beak by severing the cervical vertebrae. Prey are then typically carried to an eating perch, where they are plucked and consumed, or cached for later use. Small prey (such as bats) may be eaten in flight.

Animal Foods: birds; mammals; amphibians; reptiles; fish; insects

Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food

Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates)

Comments: Feeds primarily on birds (medium-size passerines up to small waterfowl); rarely or locally, small mammals (e.g., bats, lemmings), lizards, fishes, and insects (by young birds) may be taken. Prey pursuit initiated from perch or while soaring. May hunt up to several km from nest site (Skaggs et al. 1988). See Rosenfield et al. (1995) for information on food habits in Greenland.

Because they are high level predators, peregrine falcons play an important role in regulating populations of their prey, particularly pigeons and doves (Columbidae), ptarmigan (Lagopus), and ducks (Anatidae)

Peregrine falcons harbor, and are susceptible to, a number of parasites and diseases, including avian pox (Poxvirus avium), Newcastle disease, herpes virus, mycotic infections, strigeid trematodes (Strigeidae), nematodes (Serratospiculum amaculata), malaria (Plasmodium relictum), tapeworms, and bacterial infections. Ectoparasites include chewing lice (Phthiraptera, including Colpocephalum zerafae, Degeeriella rufa, Laemobothrion tinnunculus, and Nosopon lucidum), fleas (Ceratophyllus garei), and flies (Icosta nigra and Ornithoctona erythrocephala).

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• Ornithoctona erythrocephala
• Icosta nigra
• Ceratophyllus garei
• Nosopon lucidum
• Laemobothrion tinnunculus
• Degeeriella rufa
• Colpocephalum zerafae
• Plasmodium relictum
• Serratospiculum amaculata
• Strigeidae

Though peregrine falcons, like other birds of prey, are considered to be near the top of the food chain, they are not completely free from predators. Adults may be killed by other, large birds of prey, such as great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), gyrfalcons (Falco rusticolus) and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos). Nestlings and fledglings may be taken by mammalian predators such as cats (Felis), bears (Ursus), wolverines (Gulo gulo), or foxes (Vulpes), particularly in nests that are closer to the ground. Humans take eggs to raise for falconry.

Peregrine falcons are aggressive in defense of their nests. They will attack birds and mammals that are much larger than themselves when defending their nest.

Known Predators:

• great horned owls (Bubo virginianus)
• golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos)
• gyrfalcons (Falco rusticolus)
• bears (Ursus)
• cats (Felis)
• foxes (Vulpes)
• wolverines (Gulo gulo)

Falco peregrinus preys on:
Dicrostonyx
Lagopus
Limicolae
Anseres
Microtus
Arvicola
Larus modestus
Crocethia alba
Charadriiformes
Larus pipixcan
Podilymbus podiceps
Anas fulvigula
Actitis macularia
Tyto alba
Asio flammeus
Pteropus samoensis
Pteropus tonganus

Based on studies in:
Russia (Tundra)
Peru (Coastal)

This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300

Comments: See GABUNDCOM.

10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals

Comments: Rangewide estimates not available. Subspecies CALIDUS: breeding poulation across northern Eurasia has been estimated at 3652 territorial pairs (95% confidence interval 2282 to 5018 pairs) (Quinn and Kokorev 2000). North America: In the early 1990s, the North American population totaled several thousand breeding pairs, including about 700 known territorial pairs in the coterminous U.S. (estimated total about 890 pairs). Subspecies PEALEI: An estimated 600 breeding pairs are believed to occur in Alaska (Ambrose et al. 1988) and an additional 100 pairs in British Columbia (Munro 1988). Subspecies ANATUM: In 1998, there were at least 193 breeding pairs in the eastern United States, 32 in the midwest, 535 in the western region, and 269 in the Pacific coast region (USFWS 1999). In Alaska, there are a minimum of 301 breeding pairs (USFWS 1999). In Canada, 319 breeding pairs were located in 1995 (USFWS 1999). Mexico has not been surveyed adequately, but at least 70 nest sites were occupied there in the late 1980s and early 1990s (USFWS 1999). Subspecies TUNDRIUS: In Greenland, there were approximately 1000-2000 breeding pairs in the early 1990s (Mattox, in USFWS 1993). Alaskan nesting population was estimated at 200-250 pairs in the early 1990s. Additional pairs in the Northwest Territories and elsewhere bring the total up to probably several thousand breeding pairs.

Great-horned Owl may be a serious nest predator in the U.S. Severe weather may result in high mortality in far north. Foraging range up to 27 kilometers (Martin 1979); home ranges in Great Britain varied from 44-65 square kilometers, and averaged 52 square kilometers (Brown and Amadon 1968). In Utah, home range radii varied from 0.3 to 29.8 kilometers, average 12.2 km (n = 19; Porter and White 1973).

Peregrine falcons use a wide variety of vocalizations at different stages of life, but primarily during breeding seasons.

Most vocalizations are either between mated individuals, parents and offspring, or in antagonistic interactions.

Young beg for food with a call similar to: "screea, screea, screea."

"Cack" calls are usually used in alarm and nest defense. They are highly individual specific, with individual recognition possible in 72 to 90% of calls. The call is characterized as "kaa-a-aack, kaa-a-ack."

"Chitter" calls are used in several contexts and are a rapid succession of "chi chi chi chi's." Similarly, the eechip call occurs in a variety of contexts. It is characterized as "kee-u-chip", but the "chip" portion contains the highest energy and the "kee-u" portion is often left out.

When hunting, peregrine falcons will often give sharp, territorial calls in quick succession, "kee, kee kee...".

Postures are used to communicate aggression and appeasement. Raising the feathers and bill gaping are typical of aggressive posturing. Submission is indicated by the feathers being held tight to the body and the head held down, with beak averted.

Peregrine falcons have extraordinarily keen vision. They can see small objects from very far away and accurately fly at high speeds to capture them.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Immature Birds

Four vocalizations are recognized including:

1. Begging
2. Playful Scream
3. Cacking (threat/disturbance)
4. Chitter Scream (extreme alarm)

Adults

Most vocalizations associated with nesting season (courthship through young-rearing). These include:

1. Cack
2. Chitter
3. Eechip
4. Wail

Listen to Some Vocalizations

Alarm Call - series of harsh "kak-kak-kak"

• Cornell Lab of Ornithology

Courtship Vocalization

• The Raptor Center

Comments: In general, much hunting occurs in morning, and to lesser extent toward evening, but may hunt anytime during day.

Nest is a scrape. Clutch size 2-6 (4 typical.) Eggs are pinkish cream to rust brown in color with one egg laid every 24-48 hours. Both adults incubate though females will do majority. Incubation lasts 30-32 days. Young fledge at 40-42 days old. One brood per year though may renest if original clutch fails. Breeding typically by 2 years though possible at 1 year old. Longevity 17-20 years.

Reference

• Ehrlich, Dobkin and Wheye. 1988. The Birders Handbook. Fireside Publishing. 722 pages. (ISBN 0-671-65989-8)

Though most peregrine falcons do not live to be 1 year old, a healthy falcon who survives lives an average of 13 years. Survival rates through the first year of life are estimated at 40%. Adult survivorship is estimated at 70%. Maximum longevity records for wild birds is from 16 to 20 years old. The longest known lifespan for a captive peregrine falcon is 25 years.

Range lifespan
Status: wild: 20 (high) years.

Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 25 (high) years.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 13 (high) years.

Maximum longevity: 25 years Observations: Theoretical IMR estimates suggest values in the range of 0.3-0.1 per year (http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/).

Peregrine falcons form monogamous pair bonds that often last throughout many breeding seasons. Both males and females have a strong attachment to previous nesting sites, which may explain monogamy over multiple breeding seasons, rather than attachment between individuals.

Males display at nest ledges to attract females and advertise ownership to other falcons. The development of a pair bond is first indicated by the male and female roosting near each other. Eventually they sit at the nest ledge side by side. Individuals may also peep at each other, preen, nibble their mate's toes, or "bill" (gently grab the other bird's bill in their own). Both sexes may then engage in "ledge displays", centered on the area of their nest, or scrape. Prior to egg-laying, the pair will engage in incredible aerial displays, involving power dives, tight cornering, high soaring, and body rolls during a dive. Once the pair has formed, they begin to hunt cooperatively and females begin to beg for food from the male.

Mating System: monogamous

Peregrine falcons breed between March and May, depending on how far north they are breeding. Females usually lay their eggs in mid-May and they usually hatch in mid-June. Peregrine falcons lay one egg every 48 hours, for a total of from 2 to 6 eggs. Eggs are laid in a nest high on cliffs, tall trees, or tall buildings. Falcons make nests that are called 'scrapes', or simple small depressions dug into the sand or dirt and lined with fine materials. They may sometimes use nests that were built by other birds. Eggs hatch in 33 to 35 days. Young birds learn to fly 35 to 42 days after hatching. It typically takes 3 years for the young to reach adulthood and be able to breed. Females most frequently breed earlier than males.

Breeding interval: Falcons typically raise one clutch yearly, although in rare circumstances more than one clutch may be attempted. If a first clutch is lost soon after laying, another clutch will be attempted after about 2 weeks.

Breeding season: Peregrine falcons breed between March and May, depending on latitude.

Range eggs per season: 2 to 6.

Range time to hatching: 33 to 35 days.

Range fledging age: 35 to 42 days.

Average time to independence: 6 weeks.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 to 5 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 to 8 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 4 years.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

Average birth mass: 37.5 g.

Average eggs per season: 3.

Both parents incubate eggs and care for the young. Females generally incubate the eggs for greater proportions of the time than do males. Young are brooded almost continuously until they are 10 days old. Young birds remain dependent on their parents for several weeks after fledging. As the young become more adept at flying, parents begin to deliver prey to them by dropping them in the air. The young then pursue and capture this already-dead prey in the air. In migratory populations, young become independent at the onset of migration, usually around 5-6 weeks post-fledging. Young in non-migratory populations may be dependent for slightly longer.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)

Clutch size averages 4 at mid-latitudes, 3 in far north. Incubation lasts 32-35 days, mainly by female (male brings food). Young fledge at 39-49 days, gradually become independent. First breeds usually at 2-3 years, occasionally as yearling. Usually lifelong pair bond. Replaces lost clutches, usually at alternate site. Brood losses apparently caused mainly by bad weather. See many further details in Palmer (1988). In northwestern Arizona, mean distance between centers of nesting areas was around 6-8 km (Brown et al. 1992).

Information on Peregrine genome size (n50) can be obtained through the Animal Genome Size Database. This online database is a comprehensive collection of animal genome data. Similar databases exist for plants (Plant DNA C-values Database) and Fungi (Fungal Genome Size Database).

Genetic researchers are able to use microsatellite markers to study nest fidelity of breeding Peregrines. With DNA from adults and chicks, scientists can determine the relatedness of siblings, potentially confirm extra-pair copulation, polygamous behavior, and egg-dumping.

Reference

• Plight of the Peregrines. CBC Radio: Quirks & Quarks. 17 Feb 2007

Peregrine falcons have suffered due to their dangerous position atop the food chain. Pesticides accumulate in small (not lethal) quantities in the tissues of small birds and mammals, but become concentrated enough in predatory birds, such as falcons, to kill them or render them incapable of producing offspring. Organochlorine pesticides (DDT and dieldrin) have been proven to reduce the birds' ability to produce eggshells with sufficient calcium content, making the egg shells thin and more likely to break. Peregrine falcon populations dropped precipitously in the middle of the 20th century. All breeding pairs vanished in the eastern United States. A successful captive breeding and reintroduction program, combined with restrictions in pesticide use, has been the basis of an amazing recovery by peregrine falcons. Now the use of many of the chemicals most harmful to these birds is restricted. However, it is not yet restricted in Central and South American where many subspecies spend the winter. After having been on the endangered species list since 1969, the incredible recovery of peregrine falcons has become a perfect example of how effective human conservation can be. In the 1990s they were taken off the federal list of endangered species in the United States. They are still listed as endangered in the state of Michigan.

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: appendix i

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Rounded Global Status Rank: G4 - Apparently Secure

Reasons: Widespread, with increasing populations in many areas. Since the early 1970s, captive breeding and reintroduction programs have had some success in North America, and reproductive failure due to pesticide contamination has been reduced so that it is no longer a serious threat in most areas. Populations in North America have recovered in some areas and are increasing in most other areas. Populations increasing in northern Eurasia.

Other Considerations: Large scale captive breeding programs have produced many birds for reintroduction.

Global Short Term Trend: Increase of 10 to >25%

Comments: Populations in the Northern Hemisphere declined drastically from the 1940s to the 1970s due to DDT and its breakdown products, notably DDE, in the environment. During the 1930s and 1940s there were at least 200 breeding pairs in the eastern United States. By the mid-1960s these were all inactive (U.S. Fish and Wildlife 1993). Populations were reduced by an estimated 80-90% in the western U.S. by the mid-1970s; the decline in Alaska probably was no more than 50% (The Peregrine Fund 1992). Populations have been recovering, aided by reintroductions in some areas. In the early 1980s, continent-wide population was stable, but local increases and declines were continuing (see White et al. [1990] for 1980 status in specific areas). See also Cade et al. (1988) and Palmer (1988). Eastern U.S. population was about 210 active nests and 350 pairs in the 1930s and 1940s; population dropped to zero breeders by the mid-1960s, largely the result of eggshell thinning caused by pesticide and PCB poisoning. Populations increased after U.S. DDT ban and initiation of reintroduction efforts. Populations in Alaska, and the Yukon and Northwest Territories evidently have recovered. In interior Alaska, numbers increased about 3-fold from the mid-1970s to the early 1990s; pesticide levels have been decreasing and in the early 1990s were well below levels at which reproduction is impaired. Populations increased from 1985 to 1990 in the Yukon Territory, but full occupancy of the historic range had not yet occurred. Populations in the Mackenzie River valley increased from 1985 to 1990, but little is known of population trends in the boreal forest east of the Mackenzie valley (USFWS 1991). Subspecies TUNDRIUS: In the Northwest Territories, populations are stable or increasing in all surveyed areas (e.g., see Shank et al. 1993); some organochlorine contamination remains, but falcons are reproducing well. In Quebec, breeding performance and habitat occupancy have increased greatly since the 1970s. Overall, in Canada, populations are stable or increasing (Holroyd and Banasch 1995), and there is a continuing danger of organochlorine contamination (Bromley, 1992 COSEWIC report). In Greenland, habitat occupancy had increased to about 90% in 1990 (USFWS 1991). See USFWS (1993) for additional documentation of the recovery of this subspecies. In Alaska, the number of pairs of subspecies ANATUM and TUNDRIUS both have more than doubled in some areas, without the aid of releases (The Peregrine Fund 1992). Censuses indicate that subspecies TUNDRIUS throughout its range (USFWS 1994) and subspecies ANATUM in Alaska and the Yukon and Northwest Territories have recovered. A significant increase was recorded in migration counts in northeastern North America, 1972-1987 (Titus and Fuller 1990). With the exception of the central and western prairie provinces, reported to have recovered throughout much of Canada (The Peregrine Fund 1992). Stable or increasing in northern and western Canada; numbers remain low in southern Canada (Murphy 1990); subspecies PEALEI (breeds along British Columbia and Alaska coasts) and subspecies TUNDRIUS (breeds in arctic, winters in Latin America) seem secure (Peakall 1990). The Peregrine Fund (1992) recommended that the peregrine, including both subspecies in Alaska be delisted in all western states except Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming (where a change to Threatened status was recommended). Subspecies CALIDUS: Declined in northern Eurasia during period of intensive organochlorine pesticide use, but now increasing (Quinn and Kokorev 2000).

Degree of Threat: B : Moderately threatened throughout its range, communities provide natural resources that when exploited alter the composition and structure of the community over the long-term, but are apparently recoverable

Comments: Threats include loss of wetland habitat of primary prey, poachers robbing nests, shooting by hunters, and food chain contamination from use of persistent pesticides. Pesticide-caused reproductive failure now apparently is rare or absent in northern populations, though organochlorine levels in the environment are still high in some areas (e.g., New Mexico, Hubbard and Schmitt 1988; see also Peakall 1990; see Banasch et al. 1992 for information on contaminants in prey in Panama, Venezuela, and Mexico). Court (1993) studied the eggs of F. p. anatum in Alberta, Canada between 1983 and 1992, and found that high DDE levels still occurred in some eggs, and that 28 percent of the eggs were still thinner than critical thicknesses considered essential for successful reproduction.

Also, eggshell thickness in New Jersey declined in the 1980s, suggesting that falcons continue to be exposed to environmental contaminants (Steidl et al. 1991). Reintroduced populations in some areas of the eastern U.S. (e.g., barrier islands of the mid-Atlantic states) may be threatened by increasing human disturbance and use of nesting habitat (Byrd and Johnston 1991).

Management Requirements: Potholes dug into cliffs are readily accepted as nest sites in some areas.

Reintroduction using captive-raised birds (thousands have been released) has been partially successful, more so in the U.S. than in Canada (Peakall 1990). See Holroyd and Banasch (1990) for summary of results of reintroductions in southern Canada and recommendations to improve future release efforts. See Sherrod et al. (1982) for information on reintroduction methods. See The Peregrine Fund (1992) for a recent summary of release data. See also Cade et al. (1988).

See Skaggs et al. (1988) and Lefranc and Glinski (1988) for management recommendations for the southwestern U.S.

See Johnson (1988) for responses to various human stimuli at different distances from nesting areas.

Global Protection: Many to very many (13 to >40) occurrences appropriately protected and managed

Comments: Protected in the United States and Canada under the Migratory Bird Treaty and endangered species legislation. Hundreds of EOs are in wildlife refuges, national, state, and provincial parks, and remote wilderness areas. The arctic peregrine is currently listed under Appendix 1 of The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), an international agreement that restricts trade in rare and endangered species. Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona, has the largest nesting population on a single land management unit in the contiguous U.S. (Brown et al. 1992).

Needs: Continue efforts to protect birds from environmental contaminants.

Birds of prey are sometimes accused of killing farm animals, such as chickens. The numbers of farm animals killed by birds of prey is of minor economic consequence when compared to their contributions to pest control.

Peregrine falcons (and predatory birds in general) are a great asset to many farmers, killing millions of crop-destroying animals and insects.

Positive Impacts: controls pest population

Comments: Has been widely used for falconry.

Peregrines have been used an an environmentally friendly alternative (rather than poison) means of scaring away nonwanted bird species. For instance, airports have enlisted the aid of falconers and their birds in attempting to scare off gulls and other birds that can be hazardous to airplanes taking off and landing. Also, the University of Alberta has researched using a fake Peregrine and radar activated cannon in keeping other birds from oil sands mining areas.