Bucephala clangula

As its name says, this duck has a golden eye. Males have a white spot under their eyes, making it look like they are wearing glasses. You can see goldeneyes along the Dutch coast in the winter, where they dive for food on the sea floor. They often make their nests in hollow trees. When the young ducklings hatch, they let themselves fall out of the tree in order to follow their mother to water.

Although the Common Goldeneye’s bright yellow eyes give this species its name, this field mark is only visible at close range. At a distance, male Common Goldeneyes may be identified by their size (20 inches), green head, white body, patchy black-and-white wings, and, most notably, their white cheek patch. Female Common Goldeneyes have brown heads, grayish-brown bodies, and white necks. Duck hunters often refer to this duck as the “whistler” in reference to the sound its wings make in flight. The Common Goldeneye is found across the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, this species breeds across Canada, Alaska, and extreme northern portions of the lower 48. In winter, Goldeneyes migrate to coastal Canada as well as south into the United States and northern Mexico. In the Old World, this species breeds locally in northern Europe, Scandinavia and Russia, wintering south along the coast to the Mediterranean Sea and coastal China. In summer, the Common Goldeneye breeds in freshwater wetlands near forests with tree cavities in which to nest. During the winter, Common Goldeneyes are found primarily in sheltered saltwater estuaries and bays, with smaller concentrations wintering inland on ice-free lakes and rivers. The Common Goldeneye’s diet consists primarily of insects during the summer, eating mollusks, crustaceans, and fish during the winter. One of several species of “diving ducks” in North America, Common Goldeneyes may be observed submerging themselves to feed in the water or on the bottom. In winter, they may also be observed in small flocks on large, slow-moving bodies of water. This species is primarily active during the day.

Threat Status: Least concern

Goldeneyes feed during the day on a wide range of invertebrates such as small bivalve molluscs and crabs (5). They are able to dive to depths of 4 meters and can stay submerged for over 30 seconds (6). At the start of the breeding season in late winter and early spring, males can be seen displaying. They throw their heads back over their body whilst producing a growling noise. Several males gather to perform in this way and one or more females will watch. The nest is typically built 10-15 m off the ground in a tree hole or in a specially built nesting box (6). The female lays between 8 and 11 eggs, which are incubated for up to 30 days. The young will have fledged after a further 57 to 66 days (3).

The goldeneye is a well-known attractive diving duck (5). It has a compact shape, with a large rounded head. The upper part of the forewing is white and the undersides of the wings are dark (2). In breeding plumage, the adult male (drake) has a glossy green sheen to the black head, obvious yellow eyes, a white patch in front of the eye and white sides and breast (3). Females have a brown head, a white collar, pale yellow eyes, and the breast and sides are greyish in colour (2). Juveniles are similar in appearance to females but the head is a more greyish brown (2). The goldeneye is not a very vocal duck; a quiet 'krrr' is occasionally produced (7) and when displaying, males emit a loud 'zee-zee' call (3). In flight the wings produce a whistling or rattling sound (7).

Common goldeneyes are found throughout North America and Eurasia. In summer they breed in the northern parts of their range, mainly in Canada, the northern United States, northern Europe, and northern Russia. In winter they are found mainly in large, inland lakes and along the coasts of North America from Alaska to Baja California, Newfoundland to Florida, and the northern Gulf of Mexico. In Eurasia they are found in all coastal waters from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas and from Kamchatka to Japan. They are also found in inland lakes that remain ice-free.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Native )

Other Geographic Terms: holarctic

Gulf of Maine, Gulf of Mexico, North West Atlantic, Polish Exclusive Economic Zone, Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone, Spanish Exclusive Economic Zone, Swedish Exclusive Economic Zone, United Kingdom Exclusive Economic Zone, Wimereux

North America; Oceania; Labrador to Virginia; also, in the Gulf of Mexico

The Common Goldeneye ranges across the boreal forests of Scandinavia, eastern Europe, Russia, Mongolia, northern China, Canada, Alaska and northern USA. Its wintering range is equally broad, encompassing the coast of northern Europe including inland United Kingdom, scattered coastal and inland water bodies in south-eastern Europe (e.g. Turkey) and central Asia, the coasts of eastern China, Korea, Japan and the Kamchatkha Peninsula (Russia), the Pacific coast of Canada and the Alaskan coast and inland USA¹.

Common goldeneyes are found throughout North America and Eurasia. They breed in higher latitudes, from Scotland, northern Europe, and Scandinavia across northern Eurasia to the Kamchatka Peninsula and throughout much of Canada from interior British Columbia to Newfoundland. They breed also in northernmost Michigan, northeastern Minnesota, northern Montana, and portions of northern New York, Vermont, and Maine. Winter ranges include coastal North America from Alaska to Baja California, Newfoundland to Florida, and the northern Gulf of Mexico, throughout inland United States except for portions of Texas, the southeast, and Arizona, and into the Sierra Madre range of Mexico and northernmost coastal Mexico. In Eurasia they are found in coastal waters from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas and from Kamchatka to Japan. They are also found in inland lakes that remain ice-free.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Native )

Other Geographic Terms: holarctic

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) BREEDS: Eurasia; North America, western and central Alaska, Mackenzie Delta, east to southern Hudson Bay and Newfoundland, south to northern Washington, central Montana, northern North Dakota, northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, northern Michigan, northern New York, northern Vermont, Maine. WINTERS: Eurasia, to Mediterranean, southern China; in North America, Aleutians and southeastern Alaska to southern California, Great Lakes through the Ohio and Mississippi valleys to the Gulf Coast, St. Lawrence River and Nova Scotia to Florida, and inland national wildlife refuges (e.g., Browns Park in Colorado and Mundt in South Dakota) (Root 1988).

In Britain, this duck breeds in the Highlands of Scotland in relatively small numbers. Birds from Scandinavia and western Russia overwinter throughout much of Britain (5), arriving from August and departing in February and March (3). There are two subspecies; the form that occurs in Eurasia (Bucephala clangula clangula) and a North American subspecies (Bucephala clangula americana). The Eurasian subspecies has a wide breeding distribution extending through northern Eurasia (4).

Common goldeneyes are medium-sized diving ducks. Males are slightly larger than females, from 45 to 51 cm in length (40 to 50 cm in females) and about 1000 grams (800 grams in females) weight. Males also have more brightly colored plumage for most of the year. Breeding males have a brilliant, greenish-black head with an oval, white patch at the base of the bill. Their sides, breast, belly, and secondary feathers are bright white and their back, wings, and tail are black. Female feathers are more muted, with rich brown heads, greyish backs, wings, and tails, and white sides, breasts, and bellies. Mature adults of both sexes have bright, deep, yellow irises, giving them the common name "goldeneye." Immature individuals have brownish irises. In flight their wings produce a whistling sound.

Average mass: 800-1000 g.

Range length: 40 to 51 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; sexes colored or patterned differently; male more colorful

Common goldeneyes are medium-sized diving ducks. Males are slightly larger than females, from 45 to 51 cm in length (40 to 50 cm in females) and about 1000 grams (800 grams in females) weight. Males also have more brightly colored plumage for most of the year. Breeding males have a brilliant, greenish-black head marked with an oval, white patch at the base of the bill. Their sides, breast, belly, and secondary feathers are bright white and their back, wings, and tail are black. Female plumage is more muted, with rich brown heads, greyish backs, wings, and tails, and white sides, breasts, and bellies. Immature or eclipse males resemble females. Mature adults of both sexes have bright, deep, yellow irises, giving them the common name "goldeneye." Immature individuals have brownish irises. In flight their wings produce a whistling sound, which is characteristic.

The North American subspecies of common goldeneyes (B. c. americana) is larger overall and has a thicker bill than the Eurasian subspecies (B. c. clangula). Common goldeneyes can be confused with Barrow's goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica). However, adult male common goldeneyes have an oval white patch on the head (crescent shaped in Barrow's goldeneyes) and more white on the secondary feathers. Females are more easily confused, but female common goldeneyes have longer, sloping heads and bills and more white on the secondary feathers than female Barrow's goldeneyes. In western North America, female Barrow's goldeneyes have all yellow bills, common goldeneyes do not. This character does not work in other regions. Hatchlings of both species are also similar in appearance.

Average mass: 800-1000 g.

Range length: 40 to 51 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; sexes colored or patterned differently; male more colorful

Length: 47 cm

Weight: 1000 grams

See Tobish (1987) for details on identification of Barrow's and common goldeneyes in all plumages.

During the summer, common goldeneyes are found on northern lakes and rivers that are surrounded by mature forests where tree cavities can be found for nesting. They prefer lakes with clear water, little vegetation, and plenty of invertebrate prey.

During the winter, non-breeding season, common goldeneyes are found mainly in coastal waters and large, interior lakes and rivers. They prefer areas with shallow water and sandy, gravel, or rocky substrates. They seem to prefer slow-flowing water.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; freshwater

Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; rivers and streams; coastal ; brackish water

Other Habitat Features: estuarine

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial
• Freshwater
• Marine

During the breeding season, common goldeneyes are found on northern lakes and rivers that are surrounded by mature forests where tree cavities can be found for nesting. They prefer lakes with clear water and little emergent vegetation, although areas adjacent to bulrushes (Scirpus) are sometimes used for foraging. Preferred lakes are those with abundant invertebrate prey. Lakes that lack predatory fish, such as yellow perch (Perca flavescens), typically have the highest abundance of invertebrate prey.

During the winter, non-breeding season, common goldeneyes are found mainly in coastal marine and estuarine habitats and large, interior lakes and rivers. They prefer areas with shallow water and sandy, gravel, or rocky substrates. They are strong swimmers and can forage well in areas with strong current, but seem to prefer slow-flowing water. Common goldeneyes stop to refuel at large, interior lakes and rivers during migration towards coastal areas.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; freshwater

Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; rivers and streams; coastal ; brackish water

Other Habitat Features: estuarine

Depth range based on 10080 specimens in 1 taxon.
Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 4 samples.

Environmental ranges
  Depth range (m): 0 - 0
  Temperature range (°C): 8.237 - 9.521
  Nitrate (umol/L): 1.335 - 3.961
  Salinity (PPS): 6.428 - 34.972
  Oxygen (ml/l): 6.418 - 8.154
  Phosphate (umol/l): 0.258 - 0.439
  Silicate (umol/l): 2.336 - 10.415

Graphical representation

Temperature range (°C): 8.237 - 9.521

Nitrate (umol/L): 1.335 - 3.961

Salinity (PPS): 6.428 - 34.972

Oxygen (ml/l): 6.418 - 8.154

Phosphate (umol/l): 0.258 - 0.439

Silicate (umol/l): 2.336 - 10.415
 
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.

Comments: Ponds, lakes, rivers and coastal bays, wintering primarily in bays and estuaries, less commonly on rivers and lakes (AOU 1983). Nests usually near pond, lake, or river, but may nest in woodland up to a mile from water. May nest in natural tree cavity in large hardwood tree, in abandoned woodpecker hole, or nest-box. Often nests in same area in successive years. May "prospect" for future nest sites at end of breeding season.

Breeding takes place near lakes and rivers where there are plenty of old trees that provide nesting holes. Although often thought of as a sea-duck, it is found inland (5). In winter, this duck can be found on lakes, lochs, reservoirs, gravel pits, rivers, estuaries and bays (3) (5).

Non-Migrant: No. All populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Migrates northward February-March, southward to wintering areas October-November.

Common goldeneyes eat mainly aquatic Insecta during breeding season in northern, boreal lakes. In their winter ranges they rely on Actinopterygii, Crustacea, and Mollusca. They may also take some seeds and tubers. Important insect prey include Trichoptera, Corixidae, Odonata, Ephemeroptera, and Coleoptera. Common goldeneyes usually hunt in open water less than 4 meters deep. They dive to catch prey and dives can be from 10 to 55 seconds long. Downy hatchlings feed at the surface for their first few days but then begin short dives. Prey is eaten underwater.

Animal Foods: fish; eggs; insects; mollusks; aquatic crustaceans

Plant Foods: roots and tubers; seeds, grains, and nuts

Common goldeneyes eat mainly aquatic insects during breeding season in northern, boreal lakes. In their winter ranges they rely on fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. They may also take some seeds and tubers. A study of 395 common goldeneyes throughout the year suggested that the majority of their diet is made up of crustaceans, insects, and mollusks (70% altogether), with the remainder made up of fish, eggs, and plant material. Diet is likely to vary regionally, but important crustaceans include crabs (Hemigrapsus, Cancer, Pagurus, Cambarus, Astacus), amphipods (Ischyrocerus, Pseudalibrotus, Gammarellus, Hyalella), shrimp, isopods, and barnacles. Important insect prey include caddisfly larvae (Trichoptera), water boatmen (Corixidae), dragonfly and damselfly nymphs (Odonata), mayfly nymphs (Ephemeroptera), and beetles (Coleoptera). Mollusk prey includes Mytilus, Lymnea, Macoma, Littorina, Nucula, Goniobasis, Nassarius, Lacuna, Bittium, and Mitrella. Fish prey may be locally important. For example, in British Columbia salmon and their eggs can make up a large portion of the diet. Other fish taken include sticklebacks (Gasterosteidae), sculpins (Cottidae), minnows (Cyprinidae), topminnows (Poeciliidae), and whitefishes (Coregonus). Plant matter taken includes freshwater pond weeds (Potomogeton, Zostera, Ruppia, Najas, Zanichellia) and spatterdock (Nymphaea).

Common goldeneyes typically hunt for prey in water less than 4 meters deep. They seem to prefer foraging in open water, although they may hunt along the edges of aquatic vegetation. They dive to catch prey and dives can be from 10 to 55 seconds long. Downy hatchlings mainly feed at the surface for their first few days but then begin short dives. Hatchlings forage in the same ways as adults, although they seem to be more selective about prey taken. They take greater proportions of dragonfly and damselfly nymphs (Odonata), caddisfly larvae (Trichoptera), and water boatmen (Corixidae). Foraging flocks often dive synchronously. Prey items are typically consumed underwater.

Animal Foods: fish; eggs; insects; mollusks; aquatic crustaceans

Plant Foods: roots and tubers; seeds, grains, and nuts

Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore , Eats non-insect arthropods, Molluscivore )

Comments: In inland areas during the summer and fall, feeds on aquatic insects, crustaceans and aquatic plants. Along coastal wintering grounds feeds largely on crustaceans, mollusks, small fishes, and some plant material (Bellrose 1976).

Common goldeneyes compete directly with fish for prey and tend to be found on fish-free lakes more often than on lakes with fish.

Like many other species of Anseriformes, common goldeneyes practice nest parasitism towards other common goldeneyes. Females lay eggs in the nests of other females. Clutches with introduced eggs can be as large as 24.

Common goldeneyes are susceptible to botulism (Clostridium_botulinum), avian cholera (Pasteurella_multocida), and duck viral enteritis. Parasites include several species of protozoans, flukes, and nematodes.

Mutualist Species:

• river perch (Perca_fluviatilis)
• roach (Rutilus_rutilus)

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• flukes (Trematoda)
• nematodes (Nematoda)
• protozoans (Protozoa)

Most predators take females and young in nests. North American predators include Ursus americanus, Martes americanus, Neovison vison, Procyon lotor, Accipitridae, Strigiformes, Haliaeetus leucocephalus, and Aquila chrysaetos. Hatchlings are also taken by northern Colaptes auratus, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, and Esox lucius. Females distract predators with broken-wing displays.

Known Predators:

• American black bears (Ursus_americanus)
• American martens (Martes_americanus)
• mink (Neovison_vison)
• raccoons (Procyon_lotor)
• hawks (Accipitridae)
• owls (Strigiformes)
• bald eagles (Haliaeetus_leucocephalus 
• golden eagles (Aquila_chrysaetos)
• northern flickers (Colaptes_auratus)
• red squirrels (Tamiasciurus_hudsonicus)
• northern pike (Esox_lucius)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

Common goldeneyes compete directly with fish for prey and tend to be found on fish-free lakes more often than on lakes with fish. Removal of river perch (Perca flavescens) and roach (Rutilus rutilus) from a lake in Sweden resulted in increased use of that lake by common goldeneyes.

Like many other species of ducks, intraspecific nest parasitism is common in Bucephala clangula. Females whose nests are parasitized accept introduced eggs as their own but will abandon nests when too many introduced eggs are added to the nest in a short period of time. Common goldeneye females lay fewer of their own eggs when other eggs are introduced early in the egg-laying phase because they tend to brood only clutches of an optimal size. Levels of intraspecific parasitism vary substantially among populations and may be influenced by how limited nest cavities are in that area. Levels of parasitism range from 0 to 77.8% in British Columbia - seeming to vary mostly by local area and less year to year. Clutches with introduced eggs can be as large as 24, but most parasitized nests in British Columbia had less than 13 eggs in them.

Common goldeneyes are susceptible to botulism (Clostridium botulinum), avian cholera (Pasteurella multocida), and duck viral enteritis. Known parasites include several species of protozoans, flukes, and nematodes.

Mutualist Species:

• river perch (Perca flavescens)
• roach (Rutilus rutilus)

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• flukes (Trematoda)
• nematodes (Nematoda)
• protozoans (Protozoa)

Most predation occurs on females and young in nests. North American predators of incubating females and hatchlings include black bears (Ursus americanus), American martens (Martes americanus), mink (Neovison vison), raccoons (Procyon lotor), hawks (Accipitridae), owls (Strigiformes), bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos). Hatchlings are also taken by northern flickers (Colaptes auratus), red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), and northern pike (Esox lucius). Hatchlings are cryptically colored and females have subdued plumage as well. Females defend their nests and broods with broken-wing displays.

Known Predators:

• American black bears (Ursus americanus)
• American martens (Martes americanus)
• mink (Neovison vison)
• raccoons (Procyon lotor)
• hawks (Accipitridae)
• owls (Strigiformes)
• bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus 
• golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos)
• northern flickers (Colaptes auratus)
• red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus)
• northern pike (Esox lucius)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

>1,000,000 individuals

Common goldeneyes are mainly silent outside of the courtship and nest-finding period. Males make short, faint "peent" calls during courtship displays. Females make "gack" sounds when looking for nest sites or when disturbed.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Common goldeneyes are mainly silent outside of the courtship and nest-finding period. Males make short, faint "peent" calls during courtship displays and grunting sounds after copulation. Females make "gack" sounds that are described as harsh croaks when looking for nest sites or when disturbed. Visual signals are used in courtship and aggression.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Males can live to 11 years and females to 12 years, one common goldeneye lived to 15 years. Hunting, predation, and diseases are the leading causes of death in adults. Many hatchlings die within their first few weeks of life from predators and from being exposed to cold, wet weather.

Range lifespan
Status: wild: 15 (high) years.

Adult females have a mean annual survival rate of from 58 to 77%, varying with study and region. Banding records in Canada suggest that males can live to 11 years and females to 12 years, although an unsexed individual was recorded living to 15 years. Hunting, predation, and diseases are noted as the leading causes of mortality in adults. Hatchlings are susceptible to cold, wet weather, which may result in mortality. Young suffer heavy mortality within the first few weeks of hatching.

Range lifespan
Status: wild: 15 (high) years.

Maximum longevity: 18.4 years (wild) Observations: In the wild, the IMR has been estimated at 0.4 per year (http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/).

Common goldeneyes are monogamous. Pairs form in December and last until the male abandons the female at the beginning of incubation. Males use a complex set of courtship displays from December to March to establish and maintain the pair bond. The most spectacular display is the "head-throw-kick," in which a male repeatedly thrusts his head forward, then moves it back towards his rump and utters a call. He then flicks his head forward again while kicking the water with his feet.

Mating System: monogamous

Reproduction in common goldeneyes has been well-studied because they are relatively common in northern boreal areas and they will nest in boxes, making them easy to observe. Females lay from 4 to 12.3 greenish eggs in a single clutch each season. Females lay 1 egg every other day. Common goldeneyes nest in tree cavities, but will accept nest boxes also. Females find nest cavities and line them with other materials and downy feathers. Nests are generally within 1.3 km of water. Females tend to nest in the same place each year and near to the spot where they were hatched. Females incubate the eggs for 28 to 32 days. They leave the nest occasionally during the day to forage. Eggs all hatch within 12 hours of each other. Females first to breed at over 2 years old.

Breeding interval: Common goldeneyes breed yearly, although some individuals do skip occasional years.

Breeding season: Breeding occurs from December through May.

Range eggs per season: 4 to 12.3.

Average eggs per season: 8.7.

Range time to hatching: 28 to 32 days.

Range fledging age: 56 to 65 days.

Range time to independence: 7 to 42 days.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 to 6 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 3.2 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 (low) years.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

Young leave the nest and can walk and swim within 24 to 36 hours after hatching. The mother sits at the nest cavity entrance until all of the young jump to the ground. Females lead their brood away from the nest site to a brooding territory up to 10 km away. Females defend the young and brood them at night and during cold weather. Females abandon their broods before they can fly, usually around 5 to 6 weeks old.

Parental Investment: precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)

Common goldeneyes are monogamous. Pair bonds are formed in December and last until the male abandons the female at the beginning of incubation. It is unknown if pair bonds last over multiple years. Males use a complex set of courtship displays from December to March to establish and maintain the pair bond. Courtship displays occur in groups of several males and females, averaging 4.4 males and 1.2 females per group. There are variations on the displays. The most spectacular is the "head-throw-kick," in which a male repeatedly thrusts his head forward, then moves it back towards his rump and utters a call. He then flicks his head forward again while kicking the water with his feet.

Mating System: monogamous

Reproduction in common goldeneyes has been well-studied because they are relatively common in northern boreal areas and nest in boxes, making them easier to observe. Females lay from 4 to 12.3 greenish eggs in a clutch and lay a single clutch each season. Clutch size estimates are difficult to determine because of the frequency of intraspecific nest parasitism, which inflates clutch sizes. in one study average clutch size was 9.77, when parasitized nests were excluded, average clutch size was 7.13 eggs. Eggs are from 61.2 to 66.6 grams. Females lay 1 egg every other day.

Common goldeneyes nest in tree cavities, but will accept nest boxes and occasionally are found in rock cavities. Females find nest cavities and line them with a nest bowl constructed of other materials and downy feathers. Preferred nesting sites seem to be those used previously with success, rather than nesting sites closer to food resources for adults or young. Nests are generally within 1.3 km of water. Females who fail to breed successfully are more likely to change nest sites between years. Changing nest sites also seems to decrease reproductive success, producing smaller clutches. Females tend to nest in the general vicinity of their previous nest or natal nest. Younger females generally lay smaller clutches later in the season and have lower reproductive success than experienced breeders. After about 6 years old, clutch sizes begin to decline. Nest mortality is mainly due to predation. Clutches laid late in the year have higher mortality rates compared to early clutches.

Females incubate the eggs for 28 to 32 days. They leave the nest occasionally during the day to forage. Eggs hatch synchronously, within 12 hours of each other. Females first breed at over 2 years old, some researchers estimate breeding starts at about 3.2 years old on average and breeding continues annually for 3.9 years.

Breeding interval: Common goldeneyes breed yearly, although some individuals do skip occasional years.

Breeding season: Breeding occurs from December through May.

Range eggs per season: 4 to 12.3.

Average eggs per season: 8.7.

Range time to hatching: 28 to 32 days.

Range fledging age: 56 to 65 days.

Range time to independence: 7 to 42 days.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 to 6 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 3.2 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 (low) years.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

Young are precocial and leave the nest 24 to 36 hours after hatching. The mother attends the nest cavity entrance until all of the young jump to the ground. Females lead their brood away from the nest site to a brooding territory up to 10 km away. Only females defend the young and brood them at night and during cold weather. Females abandon their broods before they fledge, usually around 5 to 6 weeks old, but sometimes as early as 1 week after hatching.

Parental Investment: precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)

Breeding begins in early May in south, June in north. Clutch size is 5-19 (usually 8-12). Incubation, by female, lasts 28-32 days (Terres 1980; Ziucs et al. 1995, Condor 97:461-472). Nestlings are precocial and downy. Young are tended by female, can fly at 51-60 days (Harrison 1978).

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 12
Specimens with Barcodes: 12
Species With Barcodes: 1

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.

There are 12 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.  Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.

Download FASTA File

Common goldeneye populations are relatively stable despite threats to their aquatic habitats, such as acid rain, contamination, and habitat destruction. They are considered "least concern" because of their large range, large population size, and no documented population declines. They are protected as a migratory bird under the U.S. Migratory Bird Act.

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Contributor/s

Justification

History

• 2008
  Least Concern
• 2004
  Least Concern

Common goldeneye populations seem to be relatively stable despite threats to their aquatic habitats, such as acid rain, contamination, and habitat destruction. They are considered "least concern" by the IUCN because of their large range, large population size, and no documented population declines. They are protected as a migratory bird under the U.S. Migratory Bird Act. Population densities may be most affected by availability of nest cavities.

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B,N5N : N5B: Secure - Breeding, N5N: Secure - Nonbreeding

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B,N5N : N5B: Secure - Breeding, N5N: Secure - Nonbreeding

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Included in the Birds of Conservation Concern Amber List (medium conservation concern) (3). Receives general protection in the UK under Schedule 1 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act and listed under Annex II of the EC Birds Directive (4).

Major Threats

This species is not threatened at present.

Building nest boxes for goldeneyes throughout Europe has resulted in an increase in numbers of this duck. Furthermore, this factor has aided the colonisation of the Scottish breeding population (4). 26% of the overwintering population in Britain occurs in Special Protection Areas (SPAs) (4).

There are no known adverse effects of common goldeneyes on humans.

Common goldeneyes are hunted throughout much of their range.

Positive Impacts: food

There are no known adverse effects of common goldeneyes on humans.

Common goldeneyes are hunted throughout much of their range.

Positive Impacts: food