Anas platyrhynchos

The mallard feeds mainly on vegetable matter, which is usually obtained by upending (tipping head first into the water, so that the tail remains visible above the surface) (3). During autumn and winter they may feed in fields, some distance from water (3). Breeding may take place throughout the year, but usually occurs after March (4). In overcrowded water bodies, such as parks, breeding males may attack females in order to mate; this may lead to the death of the female in some cases. This behaviour is rare in truly wild mallards, however (6). The hollow nest, lined with grasses, feathers and leaves (5), is typically made close to water and is often concealed by vegetation (4). Between 10-12 pale green, blue or creamy white eggs are produced (although as many as 16 per clutch have been known), and are incubated for 28-29 days by the female (4). The downy chicks are led to the water by the female shortly after hatching and are cared for by the female for up to 8 weeks (4).

You find the mallard ducks almost anywhere where there is calm shallow water. So it's not surprising to find them in the middle of cities. They feed mostly on plants and seeds but also animal matter in the water. In the cities, they eat mostly bread. The Netherlands has lots of mallard ducks. Some years, 400,000 mallards were estimated.

The Mallard is the most recognizable species of waterfowl, often being the only species of duck present in ponds and small streams near cities and towns. This large duck is about 20 to 24 inches long with an oval-shaped body and short tail. Males are splotchy brown and tan with a green head and yellow bill, while females are speckled brown and tan with a dull brown bill. Both sexes have orange legs and a blue diamond on the wings. The Mallard is common across North America and Eurasia. This species may be found from the Arctic Circle south to the tropics. While some Mallard populations migrate between separate breeding and wintering grounds, many populations living in human-altered environments are non-migratory. Mallards are usually found in and around rivers, streams, lakes, or ponds. They eat a variety of foods, including insects, snails, and grains. Mallards are often present in large numbers where ducks are fed by humans. Mallards are often found floating on the water’s surface, occasionally dabbling (submerging their head and chest while their legs and tail stick out of the water) to find food. These ducks are also capable of taking off directly from the water. They may also be found on land, where they may be observed walking, or in the air, where they may be observed making swift and direct flights between bodies of water. They are most active during the day.

Threat Status: Least concern

The familiar mallard is the most numerous duck in Britain (3), and is the ancestor of the domestic duck (2). Both male and female mallards are easily identified by the presence of a dark blue band on the wing known as a 'speculum', which is bordered above and below with white (2). Males and females are distinct; males have a metallic bottle-green head, a crisp white neck-collar and a rich purplish-brown breast. The upperparts are grey, the flanks are somewhat paler, and the central feathers of the black tail are curled smartly upwards (2). In contrast, females are brown, with streaks of darker brown and buff (4). Juveniles are very similar to females, but lack the speculum (2). It is the female mallard who produces the well-known loud 'quack-quack' call; males produce a softer 'rhaeb', particularly when alert, and a 'piu' whistle during courtship (2).

Het mannetje heeft een glanzend groene kop en het vrouwtje is donkerbruin.

Mallards can be found almost anywhere in the world. They dominate the Northern Hemisphere, and can be found easly in Oceana, Asia, Africa, South America and many islands

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Native ); oriental (Native ); ethiopian (Native ); neotropical (Native ); australian (Native ); oceanic islands (Native )

Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) BREEDS: Alaska, Mackenzie Delta, southern Keewatin, and Maine south to southern California, Mexico, Oklahoma, and Virginia. Has expanded range in eastern North America (especially in the north) in recent decades (see Heusmann 1991 for a detailed account of status in the Atlantic Flyway). WINTERS: southern Alaska and southern Canada to southern U.S., Mexico, Cuba, occasionally Hawaii (AOU 1983). Half or more of the Mississippi Flyway's 3.2 million mallards winter in the lower Mississippi Valley, from Cape Girardeau, Missouri, to the Gulf of Mexico. Also occurs in the Palearctic. Many semiferal populations exist. Availablity of grain allows wintering north of pre-settlement range; now rare in Central America.

Mallards can be found in many regions throughout the Northern Hemisphere, native to the Nearctic, Palearctic and Oriental regions. They are the most common duck species of the Northern Hemisphere and are found in Asia, North America, and many islands.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Native ); oriental (Native )

The mallard has a circumpolar distribution.  It occurs throughout North
America from northern Canada and Alaska south into Mexico and from coast
to coast [12].  It is usually a year-round resident in the central
United States and along the West Coast from Baja to southern Alaska.
The mallard's breeding range is usually in the more northerly parts of
its distribution; it winters in the southern United States and Mexico
[15].

More info on this topic.

This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

    1  Northern Pacific Border
    2  Cascade Mountains
    3  Southern Pacific Border
    4  Sierra Mountains
    5  Columbia Plateau
    6  Upper Basin and Range
    7  Lower Basin and Range
    8  Northern Rocky Mountains
    9  Middle Rocky Mountains
   10  Wyoming Basin
   11  Southern Rocky Mountains
   12  Colorado Plateau
   13  Rocky Mountain Piedmont
   14  Great Plains
   15  Black Hills Uplift
   16  Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands

Belgian Exclusive Economic Zone, Gulf of Maine, Gulf of Mexico, New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone, North West Atlantic, Polish Exclusive Economic Zone, Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone, Spanish Exclusive Economic Zone, United Kingdom Exclusive Economic Zone, Wimereux

AL AK AZ AR CA CO CT DE FL GA HI ID IL IN IA KS KY LA ME MD MA MI MN MS MO MT NE NV NH NJ NM NY NC ND OH OK OR PA RI SC SD TN TX UT VT VA WA WV WI WY

AB BC MB NB NF NT NS ON PE PQ SK YT

MEXICO

North America; range extends from Labrador to the Gulf of Mexico

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Widespread and common throughout Britain, the mallard is absent only from mountainous or very dry areas (3). The native population is supplemented in winter by immigrants from Iceland and Scandinavia, escaping harsh winter weather (3). Outside of Britain, the mallard is found in subtropical and temperate areas throughout the northern hemisphere (5).

Mallards are undoubtedly the most recognized waterfowl in the world. They have a typical duck body with an iridescent blue patch on the wings in both sexes. On males the notable characteristics are the green iridescent feathers on the head and neck and curled black feathers on the tail. Females are uniformly a speckled brown color. The male duck's bill is yellow, while the female's bill is orange with black markings. Both males and females have orange legs, webbed feet, and dark colored eyes.

Average length: 48.0 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male more colorful

Average mass: 1048.1 g.

Average basal metabolic rate: 4.068 W.

Length: 58 cm

Weight: 1082 grams

Mallards live in a variety of habitats. Most often they live along waterways with plentiful vegetation, such as marshes, ponds, small lakes, coastal bays, and estuaries. They graze in stubble fields and nest in grasslands away from the water's edge.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial ; freshwater

Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; rivers and streams; coastal

Wetlands: marsh ; swamp

More info for the term: tree

Mallards prefer lowland habitat such as marshes, ponds, small lakes,
sheltered coastal bays and estuaries, shallow pools, tidal flats, and
protected coves [12,15].  They also graze in stubble fields and inhabit
low-elevation mountain lakes and streams.  Mallards primarily nest in
grasslands away from the water's edge but have been known to use old
bird nests, tree cavities, rights-of-way, and meadows with woody
vegetation [2].

Mallards mostly inhabit wetland plant communities composed of marsh
species such as cattail (Typha spp.), bulrush (Scirpus spp.), smartweed
(Polygonum spp.), sedge (Carex spp.), and (Phragmites spp.).  They also
inhabit brome (Bromus spp.)-wheatgrass (Agropyron spp.) communities
[12].  Mallards may use upland meadows for nesting; plants in these
meadows may include aster (Aster spp.), sowthistle (Sonchus arvensis),
and white-top grass (Scholochloa festucacea) [17].

REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the term: swamp

    16  Aspen
    17  Pin cherry
    18  Paper birch
    63  Cottonwood
    65  Pin oak - sweetgum
    88  Willow oak - water oak - diamondleaf oak
    89  Live oak
    91  Swamp chestnut oak - cherrybark oak
    92  Sweetgum - willow oak
    93  Sugarberry - American elm - green ash
    94  Sycamore - sweetgum - American elm
    95  Black willow
    96  Overcup oak - water hickory
   101  Baldcypress
   102  Baldcypress - tupelo
   103  Water tupelo - swamp tupelo
   104  Sweetbay - swamp tupelo - redbay
   217  Aspen
   235  Cottonwood - willow

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

   K047  Fescue - oatgrass
   K048  California steppe
   K050  Fescue - wheatgrass
   K051  Wheatgrass - bluegrass
   K053  Grama - galleta steppe
   K054  Grama - tobosa prairie
   K056  Wheatgrass - needlegrass shrubsteppe
   K063  Foothills prairie
   K064  Grama - needlegrass - wheatgrass
   K065  Grama - buffalograss
   K066  Wheatgrass - needlegrass
   K067  Wheatgrass - bluestem - needlegrass
   K068  Wheatgrass - grama - buffalograss
   K069  Bluestem - grama prairie
   K070  Sandsage - bluestem prairie
   K071  Shinnery
   K072  Sea oats prairie
   K073  Northern cordgrass prairie
   K074  Bluestem prairie
   K075  Nebraska Sandhills prairie
   K076  Blackland prairie
   K077  Bluestem - sacahuista prairie
   K078  Southern cordgrass prairie
   K079  Palmetto prairie
   K080  Marl - everglades
   K081  Oak savanna
   K082  Mosaic of K074 and K100
   K083  Cedar glades
   K084  Cross Timbers
   K085  Mesquite - buffalograss
   K086  Juniper - oak savanna
   K087  Mesquite - oak savanna
   K088  Fayette prairie
   K089  Black Belt
   K090  Live oak - sea oats
   K091  Cypress savanna
   K092  Everglades
   K094  Conifer bog
   K100  Oak - hickory forest
   K104  Appalachian oak forest

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

FRES15 Oak-hickory
FRES16 Oak-gum-cypress
FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES41 Wet grasslands
FRES42 Annual grasslands

Mallards are very adaptable and appear to have only a few specific
requirements.  They need enough dry ground away from the water's edge
for nesting yet plenty of pond area for feeding [2,17].  Also, mallards
need the previous year's dead vegetation for nests [15].

coastal

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial
• Freshwater

Depth range based on 81 specimens in 1 taxon.
Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 28 samples.

Environmental ranges
  Depth range (m): 0 - 0
  Temperature range (°C): 8.272 - 12.736
  Nitrate (umol/L): 1.249 - 8.636
  Salinity (PPS): 6.607 - 35.269
  Oxygen (ml/l): 6.149 - 8.081
  Phosphate (umol/l): 0.240 - 0.574
  Silicate (umol/l): 1.801 - 10.453

Graphical representation

Temperature range (°C): 8.272 - 12.736

Nitrate (umol/L): 1.249 - 8.636

Salinity (PPS): 6.607 - 35.269

Oxygen (ml/l): 6.149 - 8.081

Phosphate (umol/l): 0.240 - 0.574

Silicate (umol/l): 1.801 - 10.453
 
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.

Comments: Primarily shallow waters such as ponds, lakes, marshes, and flooded fields; in migration and in winter mostly in fresh water and cultivated fields, less commonly in brackish situations (AOU 1983). See Nichols et al. (1983). Adapted to dynamic wetland conditions that provide a variety of wetland types in relatively close proximity (Allen 1986, which see for details on winter habitat in Lower Mississippi Valley). In Maryland, breeding pairs and broods used stormwater-control basins, especially permanent ponds with gently sloping sides (Adams et al. 1985). In California and Oregon, molting areas were dominated by bulrush and cattail and were traditionally flooded in summer and often associated with lakes or rivers (Yarris et al. 1994). Usually nests on ground in concealing vegetation, sometimes in trees or in atypical situations. Nest usually within 0.8 km of water (Palmer 1976). Commonly uses man-made ponds. Successful nesters are more likely to return to the same nesting site in successive years than are unsuccessful nesters.

Occurs in almost every type of lowland wetland, including village ponds, lakes, and flood water (4). They tolerate the presence of humans, and are therefore found in parks, and rivers and streams in towns (3).

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Extent of southward migration may depend on winter temperature, water conditions, and population size. Arrives in northern breeding areas in late March and early April, in far north from mid-May into June. Departs from northern breeding areas late September into November (may depart from far north by mid-August) (Palmer 1976).

Makes postbreeding migration to molting area; females that nested in Suisun Marsh, California, began leaving in late May, 50% had departed by mid-June, and nearly all had departed by mid-July; migrated mainly northward to areas in California and south-central Oregon, 12-536 km from nesting sites; exhibited fidelity to molting area (Yarris et al. 1994).

Mallards consume a wide variety of foods, including aquatic vegetation, Insecta, and Oligochaeta, although they are not restricted to these. They also take advantage of human food sources, such as collecting grain from crops.

More info for the term: hardwood

Mallards eat a variety of aquatic plants and invertebrates as well as
crops.  Foods include duckweeds (Lemna spp, Spirodela spp.), smartweeds
(Polygonum spp.), grasses (Poaceae), sedges (Carex spp.), pondweeds
(Potamogeton spp.), rice-cutgrass (Leersia oryzoides), arrowhead
(Sagittaria latifolia), wild millet (Echinochloa spp.), crustaceans,
worms, snails, spiders, corn, and soybeans [7,12,15].  Acorns in
bottomland hardwood types are also important food [14].

Comments: Eats seeds, rootlets, and tubers of aquatic plants, seeds of swamp and river bottom trees, acorns, cultivated grains, insects, mollusks, amphibians, small fishes, fish eggs; adults eat mostly vegetable material, young initially eat mainly invertebrates. Foraging opportunities optimal where water depth less than 40 cm. See Allen (1986) for further details on diet.

Mallards are preyed upon by a wide variety of predators, including humans, Procyon lotor, Felis silvestris, Canis lupus familiaris, Mephitis mephitis, Mustela, Accipitridae, Corvus brachyrhynchos, Corvus corax, magpies, Testudines, Squamata, and Actinopterygii. They are watchful and escape to the water when startled, including the young ducklings.

Known Predators:

• humans
• Felis silvestris
• Canis lupus familiaris
• Procyon lotor
• Didelphis virginiana
• Mephitis mephitis
• Mustela
• martens
• Accipitridae
• Accipitridae
• Corvus brachyrhynchos
• Corvus corax
• magpies
• Testudines
• Squamata
• Actinopterygii

Predators of mallard include humans, cats, dogs, raccoon, opossum;
skunks, weasels, martens; eagles, hawks; crows, ravens, magpies; and
turtles, snakes, and fish [13,15].

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: > 300

>1,000,000 individuals

More info for the term: cover

Burning in late May in Manitoba's pothole region showed a drastic
decline in mallard nests initiated immediately following burning.  Nest
initiations rose again in late June [5].  Mallards are early nesters and
are adversely affected by spring burns.  Also they prefer nesting in
dense cover, which is susceptible to heavy burning [5].  Fires before
May 10 in Manitoba negatively affect nesting success, and fires after
May 10 affect nesting success of later-nesting species [17].  Also,
large scale autumn burns may remove vegetation that is important for
capturing snow, which in turn recharges marshes during spring.

Spring burning to remove grass cover showed a slight decrease in mallard
nesting on a North Dakota wildlife refuge.  On average there were 13
percent fewer of all nesting ducks, including mallard, on plots that
were mowed and burned compared to undisturbed plots [13].  Fires on
another North Dakota refuge conducted over a 4-year period showed a
greater number of nest successes on plots burned in August and September
compared to June fires [8].  By the fourth growing season nest success
was still greater on the burned plots later, although there was no
significant difference between the number of nests on the plots burned
in August and September, and the plots burned in June.

Pair formation- mostly complete by autumn but can continue into winter;
                typically monogamous.
Breeding/Nesting- March through June.
Clutch- 5 to 14 eggs; young birds lay smaller clutches; may renest if
        original clutch is destroyed.
Incubation- 26 days.
Fledge- 8 weeks.
Maturity- 1 year.
[2,12,15]

Breeding density (2.3-9.5 birds per sq km) fluctuates with pond abundance in prairie pothole region (Krapu et al. 1983). In Manitoba, nesting home range size averaged 283 hectares (Dzubin 1955). Average breeding home ranges of radio-tagged birds in Minnesota were 210 hectares (12 females) and 240 hectares (12 males); range 66 hectares to 760 hectares (a pair, Gilmer et al. 1975).

In winter, may fly up to 48 to 64 kilometers to forage from roost sites. Does not defend rigid territories, but area immediately surrounding the female usually defended by the male. Broods susceptible to mink predation. Resident birds have higher reproduction whereas migrants have higher survival (Hestbeck et al. 1992).

May be negatively impacting black duck populations in eastern North America as a result of competitive interactions (Merendino and Ankney 1994).

The familiar "quack" of ducks is from the female mallard--it is called the "decrescendo call", and can be heard for miles. A female will give the call when she wants to bring other ducks to her, such as her ducklings, and as a result it is also known as the "hail call". Mallards also use a variety of other calls to communicate amongst themselves. They have a good sense of vision.

The oldest recorded wild Mallard lived to be 26 years and 4 months old. Most Mallards probably live much less than this, perhaps from 5 to 10 years.

Range lifespan
Status: wild: 27.0 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild: 316 months.

Maximum longevity: 29.1 years

Mating System: monogamous

Most mallard females breed when they are 1 year old, but they may not have much success; studies show that older females have more success in breeding. Mating occurs from March through June. Females lay from 5 to 14 eggs in a nest on the ground near a body of water. Eggs hatch after 26 to 28 days of incubation.

Breeding interval: Mallards breed once yearly, though sometimes a second clutch is raised, especially if the first clutch failed.

Breeding season: March through June

Range eggs per season: 5.0 to 14.0.

Range time to hatching: 28.0 (high) days.

Average fledging age: 8.0 weeks.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1.0 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1.0 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); oviparous

Average eggs per season: 9.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 365 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 365 days.

Newly hatched Mallard Ducks are capable of swimming, walking, and communicating with their mother. Once hatched the female leads her ducklings to the water and abandons the nest. The young ducklings stay with their mother for about 8 weeks, then become independent.

Parental Investment: precocial ; female parental care

Clutch size is 5-14 (usually 8-10). Incubation, by female, lasts 26-30 days. Young first fly at 49-60 days. First breeds at 1 year. May attain high nesting density (up to at least about 400 nests/ha) on islands free of mammalian predators.

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 41
Specimens with Barcodes: 76
Species With Barcodes: 1

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 1
Species With Barcodes: 1

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.

There are 37 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.  Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.

Download FASTA File

Mallards are the most abundant and widespread of all waterfowl; every year millions are harvested by hunters with little effect on their numbers. The greatest threat to Mallards is loss of habitat, but they easily adapt to human disturbances.

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Resident breeder, regular passage visitor and winter visitor.

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Contributor/s

Justification

History

• 2008
  Least Concern
• 2004
  Least Concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B,N5N : N5B: Secure - Breeding, N5N: Secure - Nonbreeding

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B,N5N : N5B: Secure - Breeding, N5N: Secure - Nonbreeding

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Common and widespread (3). Included in the Birds of Conservation Concern Green List (low conservation concern) (8).

Major Threats

Comments: The recent decline is not simply a reflection of reduced number of wet ponds for breeding (Johnson and Shaffer 1987).

This duck is not currently threatened; in fact the mallard population has been increasing since the 1960s (7).

More info for the terms: cool-season, cover, warm-season

Fires can reduce predator activity through elimination of
hiding cover [5].  Rotating spring fires have proved effective for
enhancing waterfowl habitat in Manitoba.  To ensure the maximum area is
available for nesting, burning should be done in small parcels [17].
Fire can be used to establish red goosefoot (Chenopodium rubrum), an
important duck food, by reducing impenetrable reed (Phragmites spp.)
thickets and breaking solid stands of meadow grass.  To avoid harmful
effects on ducks burning should be done at times other than during the
primary nesting season or shortly before [8].  Any burning can reduce
nesting cover, however.  Autumn fires could potentially destroy rank
grasses needed for cover the following nesting season, so some cover
should be left at all times.  In northern prairies burning should not be
conducted any more frequently than every two to three years [8].
Duebbert and others [18] recommend fire for rejuvenating prairie
pothole regions of cool- and warm-season grasses.  Cool-season native
grasses should be burned from late March through mid-May or mid-August
through mid-September.  Warm-season native grasses should be burned
between mid-May and mid-June [18].

Fire has been used to provide openings in cattail (Typha spp.) marshes
for mallard foraging.  In the St Clair Wildlife Refuge, Ontario, mallards
used openings that were created by winter burning followed by spring
flooding.  Mallard foraging effort was positively correlated with invertebrate
biomass and opening size (P less than 0.001).  Burning produced less cattail mortality
than winter mowing followed by spring flooding [20].  The Research Project
Summary of Ball's [20] study provides details.

For more information on specific wetland species refer to the following
in this database:  Phragmites, Carex, Spartina, Scirpus, and Eleocharis.

More info for the terms: restoration, selection

Recruitment of mallards in the prairie pothole region of North America
is low even during years of high rainfall and runoff.  Wetland density
may be a limiting factor in nesting success, although evidence is
inconclusive [16].  The creation and restoration of wetlands can
increase wetland densities where low.

Setting numerical goals for local populations may be futile due to
regional and continental population shifts from habitat changes.
Instead, measurement of recruitment parameters at the local level can be
used with population models to predict population changes independent of
breeding size population [2].

Mallards are susceptible to diseases in urban settings.  Food poisoning
is especially common in stagnant park ponds where bacteria builds up
from heat and where bread is fed to ducks by people [4].

Bottomland oak forests serve as important feeding and wintering areas
for ducks.  Creating uneven-aged canopies by selection cuts and small
clearcuts (0.5 ha or larger) is adequate for maintaining and
regenerating oak stands [14].  Reservoirs in these areas should be
flooded beginning in mid-September and continued through October.
Drawdown should begin in mid-February.  Following years of good acorn
production, wetland flooding should be withheld for 2 to 3 years so the
understory can establish [14].

REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY

Management Requirements: See Anderson et al. (1974) for bibliography of management findings. See Allen (1986) for habitat suitability index model and information of wetland, timber, and cover type management in relation to winter habitat in Lower Mississippi Valley. See Barker et al. (1990) for information on the effects of different livestock grazing systems on nesting success in North Dakota. See Marcy (1986) for specifications for the construction and placement of wire nest baskets.

No specific conservation action has been targeted at this species, but it will have benefited from action carried out for other species of wildfowl, such as the creation and management of wetland nature reserves (9).

In areas where they are very abundant people may consider Mallards a nuisance as they are noisy and their droppings may accumulate on the ground.

Mallards are an important game bird. The money generated by duck hunting license fees pays for the management of Mallard populations, and those of other ducks, and is used to protect important habitats. Also, money spent on hunting equipment is a significant addition to the economy.

Positive Impacts: food

Comments: See Munro and Kimball (1982) for information on harvest (1961-1975).

Species Impact: Hybridization with mallard has been implicated in the declines of several other duck species (e.g., see Rhymer et al. 1994).