Abies grandis

Pinaceae -- Pine family

    Marvin W. Foiles, Russel T. Graham, and David F. Olson, Jr.

    Grand fir (Abies grandis), also called lowland white fir, balsam  fir, or yellow fir, is a rapid-growing tree that reaches its largest size  in the rain forest of the Olympic Peninsula of Washington. One tree in  that area measures 200 cm (78.9 in) in d.b.h., 70.4 m (231 ft) tall, and  has a crown spread of 14 m (46 ft). The species also has historic  significance. The famous Barlow Road snub-trees on the south side of Mount  Hood in Oregon were grand firs. They were used by early settlers to  control the rate of descent of their covered wagons on a particularly  steep slope in their trek from east to west. Some of the rope-burned trees  are still standing after 150 years.

General: Pine Family (Pinaceae). Native evergreen trees growing to 75-100 meters tall, the crown conic, becoming round or straggly with age, branches dropping, twigs mostly opposite. Bark: smooth, gray, becoming brown and furrowed with age. Needles are 2-6 cm long, flattened, strongly waxy and silvery-white on the lower surface, green above, mostly 2-ranked, spreading horizontally, not concealing the upper surface of twigs, the needles 1-ranked and spiraled higher on the tree; resin canals marginal, located near the lower epidermis; stomatal rows absent on the upper surface at midleaf, 5-7 stomatal rows on each side of midrib of lower surface. Seed cones: 6-12 cm long, 2-4 cm wide, dark purple or blue to gray or light green at maturity, erect and on the upper branches. Native. The common name refers to the large size of mature trees, one of the tallest of the firs.

Variation within the species: Although Abies grandis is fairly uniform throughout its range, a green coastal form and gray interior form are often recognized, and five fairly distinct climatic forms of grand fir have been identified, differing mainly in physiological and ecological traits. Abies grandis var. idahoensis Silba was recently described (Silba 1990) as “an inland variety, to 1850 m altitude” from southeast British Columbia to central Idaho, characterized by smaller cones, a distinct forward and vertical spread of the leaves, and more twisted petioles. In southern Oregon and northern California, grand fir hybridizes and introgresses with A. concolor, which generally grows in higher, drier habitats. Natural hybrids also are known between grand fir and subalpine fir.

Abies grandis is distinguished from the closely similar A. amabilis by bud scales slightly pubescent or glabrous (vs densely pubescent), upper surface of twigs easily visible (vs concealed by the needles), and variably colored mature seed cones (vs purple). Compared to subalpine fir, grand fir occurs at lower elevations, has a wider crown, and usually produces broad spreading lower limbs with beautifully even secondary branchlets.

Distribution: Coastal British Columbia, south along the coast to Sonoma County, California. A disjunct population system in the Northern Rocky Mountains occurs from southern British Columbia and Alberta to Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and western Montana. For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

More info on this topic.

This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [21]:

1 Northern Pacific Border

2 Cascade Mountains

3 Southern Pacific Border

5 Columbia Plateau

8 Northern Rocky Mountains

CA
HI
ID
MT
OR
WA

BC

Grand fir has a split distribution. Along the Pacific Coast it occurs from southern British Columbia south to Sonoma County, California, and east to the Cascade Range of central Oregon. In the continental interior it occurs from the Okanagan and Kootenay lakes region of British Columbia south to eastern Oregon, central Idaho, and west of the Continental Divide in Montana [71,174].

Grand fir is planted for lumber and as an ornamental in Hawaii [168] and Europe [141].

Grand fir grows in the stream bottoms, valleys, and mountain slopes of  northwestern United States and southern British Columbia. Its wide  geographical distribution is from latitude 51° to 39° N. and  from longitude 125° to 114° W. In the Pacific coast region it  grows in southern British Columbia mainly on the lee side of Vancouver  Island and the adjacent mainland, in the interior valleys and lowlands of  western Washington and Oregon, and in northwestern California as far south  as Sonoma County. The range in the continental interior extends from the  Okanogan and Kootenay Lakes in southern British Columbia south through  eastern Washington, northern Idaho, western Montana west of the  Continental Divide, and northeastern Oregon. The best commercial stands of  grand fir are in the Nez Perce and Clearwater regions of northern Idaho  (9).

     
- The native range of grand fir.

Abies grandis (Douglas ex D. Don) Lindl.:
Canada (North America)
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Common in moist forests in stream bottoms, valleys, and Lower Mountain slopes, preferably on N-facing slopes, on a variety of soil types, 0-1500 meters. Grand fir sometimes grows in pure stands but is much more common in mixed coniferous and hardwood forests. It is very shade tolerant, especially when young, although growth is slower in dense shade. It is a dominant climax species in some habitat types and a long-lived seral species in other types.

Trees to 75m; trunk to 1.55m diam.; crown conic, in age round topped or straggly. Bark gray, thin to thick, with age becoming brown, often with reddish periderm visible in furrows bounded by hard flat ridges. Branches spreading, drooping; twigs mostly opposite, light brown, pubescent. Buds exposed, purple, green, or brown, globose, small to moderately large, resinous, apex round; basal scales short, broad, equilaterally triangular, slightly pubescent or glabrous, resinous, margins entire, apex pointed or slightly rounded. Leaves (1--)2--6cm ´ l.5--2.5mm, 2-ranked, flexible, with leaves at center of branch segment longer than those near ends, or with distinct long and short leaves intermixed, proximal portion ± straight, leaves higher in tree spiraled and 1-ranked; cross section flat, grooved adaxially; odor pungent, faintly turpentinelike; abaxial surface with 5--7 stomatal rows on each side of midrib; adaxial surface light to dark lustrous green, lacking stomates or with a few stomates toward leaf apex; apex distinctly notched (rarely rounded); resin canals small, near margins and abaxial epidermal layer. Pollen cones at pollination bluish red, purple, orange, yellow, or ± green. Seed cones cylindric, (5--)6--7(--12) ´ 3--3.5cm, light green, dark blue, deep purple, or gray, sessile, apex rounded; scales ca. 2--2.5 ´ 2--2.5cm, densely pubescent; bracts included. Seeds 6--8 ´ 3--4mm, body tan; wing about 1.5 times as long as body, tan with rosy tinge; cotyledons (4--)5--6(--7). 2 n =24.

More info for the term: tree

Grand fir is a native tree. It characteristically has a wide crown, although there is considerable variation in crown width and continuity [14,57]. Heights of mature trees range from 140 to 200 feet (43-61 m) along the coast and from 131 to 164 feet (40-50 m) inland [71,104]. The bole of mature trees may reach 79 inches dbh (200 cm) on the Washington coast but usually ranges from 20 to 40 inches dbh (51-102 cm) [71]. Bark is thin on young trees (mean=0.9 cm for a 20-cm diameter tree) and moderately thick at maturity (m=1.7 cm for a 40-cm diameter tree) [14,144,169]. Finch [64] projected that the bark of a grand fir is 4.3% of the tree's dbh. (For comparison, western white pine and western larch are 1.8 and 7.4% of tree dbh, respectively).

Grand fir has a well-developed taproot [14,103,124,134]. On dry sites the taproot grows to moderate depths while on moist sites shallow lateral roots prevail, and the taproot may be absent [71]. Depth of horizontal roots is moderate compared to associated conifers [103,124,134].

Several morphological characteristics of grand fir lend to its relative flammability. Branching habit is low and dense; stands tend to be dense as well [169]. The foliage has a higher surface-to-volume ratio than that of associated conifers, and the needles are retained longer on the tree (m=7 years) [112]. On the Priest River Experimental Forest in northern Idaho, foliage comprised a greater proportion of total crown weight in grand fir than in 8 associated conifer species. Biomass allocation to smaller-diameter branchwood (< 2 inches (5 cm)) relative to larger-diameter branchwood was also greater in grand fir than most associated conifers [57].

Older grand fir support pervasive rotting fungi but frequently reach 250 years of age and occasionally exceed 300 years [14,71]. Camp [34] found that in the Cascade Range of Washington, grand fir in 21 late-successional stands ranged from 15 to 256 years of age, with a mean age of 83 years.

Grand fir is moderately drought tolerant [34].

Tree, Evergreen, Monoecious, Habit erect, Trees without or rarely having knees, Primary plant stem smooth, Tree with bark smooth, Tree with bark rough or scaly, Young shoots 3-dimensional, Buds resinous, Leaves needle-like, Leaves alternate, Needle-like leaf margins entire (use magnification), Leaf apex mucronulate, Leaves < 5 cm long, Leaves > 5 cm long, Leaves < 10 cm long, Leaves not blue-green, Leaves white-striped, Needle-like leaves flat, Needle-like leaves not twisted, Needle-like leaf habit erect, Needle-like leaf habit drooping, Needle-like leaves per fascicle mostly 1, Needle-like leaf sheath early deciduous, Needle-like leaf sheath persistent, Twigs pubescent, Twigs not viscid, Twigs without peg-like projections or large fascicles after needles fall, Berry-like cones orange, Woody seed cones > 5 cm long, Bracts of seed cone included, Seeds tan, Seeds winged, Seeds unequally winged, Seed wings prominent, Seed wings equal to or broader than body.

Pinus grandis Douglas ex D. Don in Lambert, Descr. Pinus [ed. 3] 2: unnumbered page between 144 and 145. 1832

More info for the term: mesic

Climate and moisture regime: Grand fir tends to dominate moderately moist habitats. In the northern Rocky Mountains, grand fir habitat types indicate areas where the climate is moderated by the Pacific maritime influence [43,145,171]. Generally, drier sites are occupied by Douglas-fir while western redcedar and western hemlock dominate wetter habitats [10,38,131]. Inland, grand fir is most abundant on sites averaging 25 inches (635 mm) or more annual precipitation that are either too dry for, or beyond the range of, western hemlock and western redcedar [14]. Habeck [84] found that in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness of northern Idaho and western Montana, grand fir forests were most extensive on mid-elevation (3,500-4,00 feet), mesic slopes. They fingered into wetter, western redcedar types and were scarce on drier types. Grand fir is a relatively minor stand component in wet, dense coastal forests [187]. In southern British Columbia, it is most common on moist soils and is infrequent on dry or wet soils [117]. Although it is the most drought-tolerant of the Pacific Northwest firs, moisture is limiting in grand fir's southernmost distribution. Grand fir occurs only on moist slopes in northeastern California [174]. West of the Cascade Range in Oregon and California, it occurs mainly on moist valley bottoms [14].

Grand fir is tolerant of fluctuating water tables and floods [117].

Soils: Soil parent materials in which grand fir grows include sandstone, pumice, weathered lava or granite, and gneiss [71,31]. Grand fir is not generally restricted by soil type but does best on streamside alluvium and deep, nutrient-rich valley bottoms [71,117,155,174]. If there is adequate moisture, grand fir in central and eastern Oregon grows on pumice and other shallow, exposed soils [71]. On the Mendocino Coast of California grand fir occurs on soils of pH 5 [107].

Elevation: Grand fir occurs at elevations up to 6,000 feet (1,830 m) in the Cascade Range and northern Rocky Mountains [14,71]. West of the Cascade Range, it is usually restricted to low-elevation valleys [14]. Elevations are listed below by region.

  Minimum feet (m) Maximum feet (m) western British Columbia   sea level 1000 (305) [14] California   sea level 5000 (1525) [14,71,102,174] Idaho   2000 (610) 6000 (1830) [122,19] western Montana   4300 (1290) 4700 (1410) [11] Oregon Cascades   ---- 6025 (1825) [14,71,174] western Oregon   sea level 3000 (915) [14] Washington Cascades   ---- 4000 (1220) [14,71,174] western Washington   590 (180) 1000 (305) [14,174]

More info for the terms: association, climax, fern, ferns, fire regime, shrub, succession

Grand fir is an indicator of productive forest sites [80,88,117]. Mature grand fir stands are usually floristically diverse [43,71]. Common plant community associates of grand fir are grouped below by region.

Western Montana and northern Idaho: In Montana, the grand fir habitat type is often bound by Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) habitats on warmer, drier sites and by subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) on cooler sites. In northern Idaho, the grand fir type merges into western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and western redcedar (Thuja plicata) on cooler sites [145]. Western larch (Larix occidentalis), Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia), and Pacific ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa var. ponderosa) are major seral species in climax interior grand fir habitats [49,74,145,172]. Understory associates are many: pachistima (Pachistima myrsinites), common snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus), Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), baldhip rose (Rosa gymnocarpa), blue huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum), white spirea (Spiraea betufolia), twinflower (Linnea borealis), beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax), queencup beadlily (Clintonia uniflora), and wild ginger (Asarum caudatum) are among the most common [43,145,49].

Washington, Oregon, and California: Grand fir occurs on moist to dry sites in the Cascade Range. Overstory associates on moist sites may include western hemlock, western redcedar, Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis)[46]. Mid- and understories are diverse and dense on moist sites and commonly include Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), red alder (Alnus rubra), Pacific dogwood (Cornus nuttallii), redstem ceanothus (Ceanothus sanguineus), shinyleaf ceanothus (C. velutinus), thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), huckleberries (Vaccinium spp.), pachistima, queencup beadlily, and/or vanillaleaf (Achlys triphylla). Hot, dry sites are usually open and less diverse, with Pacific ponderosa pine, Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and western white pine (Pinus monticola) as common overstory associates. Understories are typically grassy and dominated by pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens) and elk sedge (Carex geyeri) [33,115,181].

In the Willamette Valley of Oregon, associates of grand fir in coastal Douglas-fir-Oregon white oak (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii-Quercus garryana) include incense-cedar (Calocedrus decurrens), Pacific ponderosa pine, California black oak (Q. kelloggii), chinquapin (Chrysolepsis chrysophylla), Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii), and bigtooth maple (Acer macrophyllum) [42].

In southwestern Oregon and northwestern California, grand fir is common in mixed evergreen and conifer forests [102], where it is associated with Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica var. shastensis), noble fir (A. procera), redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), western hemlock, Sitka spruce, and coastal Douglas-fir [2,102]. Mid-story and shrub associates in redwood forest of Redwood National Park, California, include tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus), Pacific madrone, evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), red huckleberry (V. parvifolium), and Pursh's buckthorn (Frangula purshiana). Commonly associated ferns and herbs include western sword fern (Polystichum munitum), deer fern (Blechnum spicant), Oregon oxalis (Oxalis oregana), and salal (Gaultheria shallon) [125].

Hall [91] arranged grand fir plant associations by fire regime and grand fir's successional position in the plant community. Detailed lists of understory plants are included in habitat type and community type manuals for each region. Vegetation classifications describing plant communities in which grand fir is a dominant species are listed below.

Forest habitat types of northern Idaho: a second approximation [43]

Forest vegetation of eastern Washington and northern Idaho [49]

Classification of grand fir mosaic habitats [61]

Forest vegetation of the montane and subalpine zones, Olympic Mountains, Washington [72]

Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington [74]

Plant communities of the Blue Mountains in eastern Oregon and southeastern Washington [88]

Classification and management of Montana's riparian and wetland sites [96]

Plant association and management guide: Willamette National Forest [101]

Riparian reference areas in Idaho: a catalog of plant associations and conservation sites [106]

Forest habitat types of Montana [145]

Major Douglas-fir habitat types of central Idaho: a summary of succession and management [173]

Plant association and management guide for the grand fir zone, Gifford Pinchot National Forest [181]

Forest plant associations of the Colville National Forest [193]

The redwood forest and associated north coast forests [197]

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

More info for the term: cover

SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [163]:

109 Ponderosa pine shrubland

110 Ponderosa pine-grassland

409 Tall forb

422 Riparian

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the term: cover

SAF COVER TYPES [56]:

206 Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir

207 Red fir

210 Interior Douglas-fir

211 White fir

212 Western larch

213 Grand fir

215 Western white pine

218 Lodgepole pine

221 Red alder

222 Black cottonwood-willow

224 Western hemlock

225 Western hemlock-Sitka spruce

226 Coastal true fir-hemlock

227 Western redcedar-western hemlock

228 Western redcedar

229 Pacific Douglas-fir

230 Douglas-fir-western hemlock

231 Port-Orford-cedar

232 Redwood

233 Oregon white oak

237 Interior ponderosa pine

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

KUCHLER [121] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:

K001 Spruce-cedar-hemlock forest

K002 Cedar-hemlock-Douglas-fir forest

K003 Silver fir-Douglas-fir forest

K006 Redwood forest

K007 Red fir forest

K008 Lodgepole pine-subalpine forest

K011 Western ponderosa forest

K013 Cedar-hemlock-pine forest

K014 Grand fir-Douglas-fir forest

K015 Western spruce-fir forest

K025 Alder-ash forest

K026 Oregon oakwoods

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

ECOSYSTEMS [77]:

FRES20 Douglas-fir

FRES21 Ponderosa pine

FRES22 Western white pine

FRES23 Fir-spruce

FRES24 Hemlock-Sitka spruce

FRES25 Larch

FRES27 Redwood

FRES28 Western hardwoods

Grand fir seems to grow equally well on soils derived from a variety of  parent materials, including sandstone, weathered lava (rock), or granite  and gneiss. In the Pacific coast region and in the Willamette Valley of  Oregon it grows most abundantly on deep, rich alluvial soils along streams  and valley bottoms and on moist soils provided with seepage. In the inland  regions it grows best on rich mineral soils of the valley bottoms, but it  also grows well on shallow, exposed soils of mountain ridges and pure  pumice soils in central and eastern Oregon, provided moisture is adequate  (9). Most of the soils that support grand fir have been classified as  Spodosols.

    Grand fir grows on Vancouver Island and the adjacent mainland of British  Columbia at elevations between sea level and 305 m (1,000 ft). In the  southern interior of British Columbia it grows only in the moist valleys  of such rivers as the Kootenay, Columbia, and Okanogan and their  tributaries. Grand fir is predominantly a lowland species in western  Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia. In western Washington it grows  in valleys and stream bottoms having high ground-water levels. Elevations  of these sites are usually between 180 and 305 m (590 and 1,000 ft). At  elevations above 460 m (1,510 ft), grand fir is replaced by Pacific  silver fir (Abies amabilis). Grand fir is found in western Oregon  and in the lowlands of all the river regions, and in the lower west  Cascades to an elevation of 915 m (3,000 ft). In northern California it  grows from near sea level to about 1525 m (5,000 ft) (9).

    In the eastern Cascades of Washington, 915 to 1220 m (3,000 to 4,000  ft) is the upper altitude limit for grand fir, while in the eastern  Cascades of Oregon it grows at 1525 m (5,000 ft). In the Inland Empire,  including the Blue Mountains of Oregon, it is found as high as 1830 m  (6,000 ft) and as low as 460 m (1,500 ft), but usually between 610 and  1525 m (2,000 and 5,000 ft). In the Nez Perce region of central Idaho, it  grows well at altitudes of 1220 to 1675 m (4,000 to 5,500 ft) (9).

Grand fir is found on a wide variety of sites. Average annual  precipitation in its territory ranges from 510 to more than 2540 mm (20 to  100 in) in western Washington and on Vancouver Island. Annual  precipitation in the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon averages 360 to 990  mm (14 to 39 in). In northern Idaho, average annual precipitation is 510  to 1270 mm (20 to 50 in). Most of this precipitation occurs during winter.  Generally 15 to 25 percent of the annual precipitation occurs during the  growing season, May through August. On Vancouver Island, where average  annual precipitation ranges from 680 to 2820 mm (27 to 111 in), only 50 to  130 mm (2 to 5 in) of rain falls during June, July, and August. Average  annual snowfall ranges from a few centimeters on some coastal sites to  more than 1270 cm (500 in) in the mountains of the interior (9).

    Average annual temperatures range from 6° to 10° C (43°  to 50° F); the average growing season temperature is 14° to 19°  C (57° to 66° F). The frost-free season varies, ranging from  about 60 to more than 250 days, and is very irregular from year to year.  Frosts may occur in any month in the interior. The average growing season  ranges from only 100 to 140 days in northern Idaho, 185 days on the  Olympic Peninsula in western Washington, and 250 or more days in northern  California (9).

Moist, coastal coniferous forests and mountain slopes; 0--1500m; B.C.; Calif., Idaho, Mont., Oreg., Wash.

Systems

• Terrestrial

Seed production in grand fir is relatively low. A good cone crop is considered to be more than 40 cones per tree – the interval between good seed crops is about 2-3 years. Seed production begins at about 20 years of age. Germination is best on mineral soil but in open sites the seeds germinate nearly as well on duff as on any other surface. Primary causes of germination failure are insect infestation and the perishable nature of the seeds. Grand fir seedlings are relatively resistant to drought on areas exposed to full sun because deep initial root penetration protects them from drying of the surface soil. On heavily shaded, cool areas, surface dryness from drought is the most important physical cause of seedling mortality because initial root penetration is slow.

Initial survival and growth of grand fir are favored by moderate shade, where growth may be aggressive enough to form a dominant part of the forest. After 20-30 years, it makes most rapid growth in the open. Trees 250 years old are common and occasional trees may be more than 300 years old.

Foodplant / false gall
Adelges piceae causes swelling of live, sometimes swollen branch of Abies grandis

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Exidiopsis grisea is saprobic on dead, decayed bark of Abies grandis
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / parasite
hypophyllous, two irregular rows aecium of Milesina kriegeriana parasitises locally yellowed needle of Abies grandis
Remarks: season: 6-9

Foodplant / parasite
hypophyllous, in two rows aecium of Pucciniastrum epilobii parasitises needle of Abies grandis
Remarks: season: 6-7

In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Foodplant / parasite
densely gregarious, linearly arranged, hypophyllous pycnidium of Rhizosphaera coelomycetous anamorph of Rhizosphaera pini parasitises live needle of Abies grandis
Remarks: season: 2

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Thysanophora dematiaceous anamorph of Thysanophora penicillioides is saprobic on dead, rotting, fallen needle of Abies grandis

Grand fir is either a seral or climax species in different forest types  within its range. On moist sites it grows rapidly enough to compete with  other seral species in the dominant overstory. On dry sites it becomes a  shade-tolerant understory and eventually assumes dominance as climax  conditions are approached.

    Grand fir is represented in 17 forest cover types of western North  America: it is the predominant species in only one, Grand Fir (Society of  American Foresters Type 213) (26). It is a major component of six other  cover types: Western Larch (Type 212), Western White Pine (Type 215),  Interior Douglas-Fir (Type 210), Western Hemlock (Type 224), Western  Redcedar (Type 228), and Western Redcedar-Western Hemlock (Type 227).  Grand fir appears sporadically in 10 other cover types.

    In northern Idaho, grand fir is the major climax tree species in seven  habitat types and is an important seral tree in the Thuja plicata,  Tsuga heterophylla, and Abies lasciocarpa series of habitat  types (5). The Montana forest ecological classification recognizes an Abies  grandis series of three habitat types in which grand fir is the major  climax tree (23). It is also a minor climax or seral tree in four other  types in Montana. In central Idaho, Steele and others (28) described an  Abies grandis series that includes nine habitat types and five  phases in which grand fir is the climax tree.

    The Abies grandis zone is the most extensive midslope forest  zone in the Cascade Range of Oregon and southern Washington and the Blue  Mountains of eastern Oregon. Grand fir is the climax tree species in 12  plant associations (15,18). It is also an important component of the mixed  conifer communities in the Willamette Valley and Siskiyou Mountains of  Oregon (16). In addition, grand fir grows sporadically in the Tsuga  heterophylla, Picea sitchensis, and Abies amabilis zones in  the coastal forests of Washington and Oregon (11).

    Grand fir sometimes grows in pure stands but is much more common in  mixed coniferous and hardwood forests. In forests east of the Cascade  crest, it is associated with western white pine (Pinus monticola),  western larch (Larix occidentalis), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga  menziesii), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), western  redcedar (Thuja plicata), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta),  ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), and in certain areas,  Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), subalpine fir (Abies  lasiocarpa), black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa), Pacific  yew (Taxus brevifolia), white fir (Abies concolor), incense-cedar  (Libocedrus decurrens), sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana), Shasta  red fir (Abies magnifica var. shastensis), and Oregon  white oak (Quercus garryana).

    Associates of grand fir in northwestern Oregon, western Washington, and  southwestern British Columbia include Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis),  Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), and Port-Orford-cedar  (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), in addition to western redcedar,  western hemlock, western larch, and Douglas-fir. It also is associated  with these coast hardwoods: bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), Oregon  ash (Fraxinus latifolia), red alder (Alnus rubra), black  cottonwood, and Oregon white oak.

    In southwestern Oregon and northwestern California, at the southern  limits of the range, grand fir is found with redwood (Sequoia  sempervirens), and at higher elevations with Shasta red fir, white  fir, noble fir (Abies procera), subalpine fir, and western white  pine.

    Shrubs commonly associated with grand fir include pachistima (Pachistima  myrsinites), bristly black currant (Ribes lacustre), Saskatoon  serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), Rocky Mountain maple (Acer  glabrum), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), birchleaf spirea (Spiraea  betulifolia), huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.), Utah honeysuckle  (Lonicera utahensis), mallow ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus),  common snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus), baldhip rose (Rosa  gymnocarpa), princes-pine (Chimaphila spp.), Spalding  rose (Rosa nutkana var. hispida), oceanspray (Holodiscus  discolor), creeping hollygrape (Berberis repens), willow (Salix  spp.), thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), rustyleaf  menziesia (Menziesia ferruginea), and pyrola (Pyrola spp.).

    Herbaceous species commonly found in various associations with grand fir  include queenscup (Clintonia uniflora), false solomons-seal (Smilacina  stellata), goldthread (Coptis occidentalis), Pacific trillium  (Trillium ovatum), sweetscented bedstraw (Galium triflorum),  pathfinder (trailplant) (Adenocaulon bicolor), wildginger (Asarum  caudatum), Piper anemone (Anemone piperi), violet (Viola  spp.), sandwort (Arenaria macrophylla), heartleaf  arnica (Arnica cordifolia), strawberry Fragaria spp.),  rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera oblongifolia), western  meadowrue (Thalictrum occidentale), coolwort (Tiarella spp.),  fairybells (Disporum oreganum), white hawkweed (Hieracium  albiflorum), and sweetroot (Osmorhiza spp.). Graminoids  frequently associated with grand fir are Columbia brome (Bromus  vulgaris), pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens), western fescue  (Festuca occidentalis), and sedge (Carex spp.). Additional  species are associated with grand fir in the coastal region, where it  grows with western hemlock, coastal Douglas-fir, Sitka spruce, and  redwood.

During the period of stand development from  establishment to maturity, several factors influence stand growth and  yield. Grand fir is rated medium in fire resistance among species of the  western white pine type; it is less resistant than thick-barked western  larch, ponderosa pine, and Douglas-fir but more resistant than subalpine  fir, western hemlock, and Engelmann spruce. Fire resistance is influenced  by habitat. For example, in moist creek bottoms grand fir succumbs rapidly  to ground fires, but on dry hillsides it is more resistant, largely  because of its deeper root system and thicker bark. The needles are quite  resistant to cold during the severest part of the winter. Grand fir leaves  have been subjected to temperatures of -55° C (-67° F) without  damage. Sudden extreme drops of temperature in the fall occasionally  damage needles, but seldom are they fatal. Frost cracks and lightning  scars appear more frequently on grand fir, however, than on its associates  in the Inland Empire. The cracks cause little direct mortality but  contribute to the spread of infection by decay fungi. Often small patches  of trees are uprooted or broken by the accumulation of snow in the crowns  of dense immature stands in the Inland Empire (9). In England young grand  firs from Vancouver Island and western Washington are reportedly  susceptible to late spring frost and drought crack (2).

    Susceptibility to heart rot and decay is one of the more important  factors in the management of grand fir. Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium  tinctorium) is the most destructive fungus in forests east of the  Cascade crest (17). In the Blue Mountains of Oregon and Washington, decay  was reported responsible for losses of 14 percent of the gross  merchantable cubic-foot volume and 33 percent of the board-foot volume in  sawtimber-size grand fir trees (1). Fungi enter the tree through small  shade-killed branchlets in the lower crown. After closure of the branchlet  stub, infections become dormant. Years later the infections are   reactivated when mechanical injuries allow air to enter the heartwood  where the dormant infections are located (7). Therefore, centers of decay  are closely related to logging scars, frost cracks, broken tops, and other  mechanical injuries (21).

    Indian paint fungus is rare in grand fir west of the Cascade crest where  rapid growth rates close branch stubs quickly (7). Armillaria spp.  and Phellinus weiri are the two most important root rot fungi.  Poria subacida and Heterobasidion annosum also attack  grand fir (17).

    Numerous insects attack grand fir. The western spruce budworm (Choristoneura  occidentalis) and Douglas-fir tussock moth (Orgyia pseudotsugata)  have caused widespread defoliation, top kill, and mortality. The  western balsam bark beetle (Dryocoetes confusus) and the fir  engraver (Scolytus

    ventralis) are the principal bark beetles attacking grand fir.  The fir cone moth (Barbara spp.), fir cone maggots (Earomyia  spp.), and several seed chalcids destroy large numbers of  grand fir cones and seeds. The balsam woolly adelgid (Adelges piceae),  often called "gout disease of fir," has destroyed grand fir  in western Oregon and Washington and is a serious threat in southwestern  British Columbia (12).

More info on this topic.

More info for the terms: climax, fern, series, succession, tussock

Grand fir occurs in the overstory of both seral and late-successional forests [9,71,91,47,52,83,87]. It is climax throughout the grand fir series and is a major seral species in some western redcedar, western hemlock, subalpine fir, and Pacific silver fir habitat types [91]. It exhibits moderate growth in the open, yet is shade-tolerant enough to establish and grow beneath an open forest canopy [9,60,130,145,183]. Grand fir is not as shade-tolerant as western redcedar, hemlocks, or other firs and does not establish beneath a closed canopy [71,156,148,155,187,183]. Succession to a grand fir overstory is usually slower on shrubfields than on sites where grand fir developed beneath a forest canopy [10,49,157]. In grand fir habitats on Clearwater River drainages in northern Idaho, succession to a woody overstory was retarded by bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) or western coneflower (Rudbeckia occidentalis) invasion, and by northern pocket gopher browsing young grand fir and other conifer regeneration [59].

Grand fir does not require disturbance to establish and persist on most sites [15,188]; however, where western hemlock or western redcedar is the climax dominant, fire or other periodic disturbance is needed to maintain grand fir [14]. Grand fir may colonize a site soon after fire or other stand-replacing disturbance. Grand fir advance regeneration and seedling coverage were highest among 5 conifers following a severe Douglas-fir tussock moth outbreak that killed most of the grand fir-Douglas-fir overstory on the Wenaha-Tucannon Wilderness, Oregon. Although ponderosa pine seedlings showed faster growth rates than grand fir seedlings, the authors predicted that in the absence of fire, grand fir would continue to dominate the site despite repeated tussock moth outbreaks [192].

In the Swan Valley of western Montana, a grand fir understory usually developed in late succession beneath Douglas-fir that replaced early-succession lodgepole pine and western larch. Grand fir seedling establishment on early seral sites occurred mainly where lodgepole pine and western larch seed sources were lacking, such as the center of large, stand-replacement burns [9]. Descriptions of seral communities that occur in grand fir habitat types in Montana's Swan Valley and in central Idaho are available [9,43,171,172].

Dale and others [47] developed a model of long-term succession (500+ years) in western Washington and Oregon. The model predicts that in the absence of disturbance, grand fir is an early mid-seral species that is eventually replaced by Pacific silver fir, western hemlock, and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana). The model also predicts successional pathways after disturbance events including fire, windstorm, insect outbreak, and clearcutting.

More info for the terms: density, frequency, litter, presence, root crown, tree

Cones: Cone and seed production begins at 20 to 50 years of age, and cone productivity increases with age [54,174,183]. In a good year, an average grand fir tree produces over 40 cones [71]. A year of heavy cone production is typically followed by several years of light production [73,158,174,185,179]. Pollen and ovulate cones begin development during the summer and go through a period of winter dormancy before pollination, fertilization, and seed production the 2nd spring and summer [165]. Hard frosts may inhibit cone development [71].

Seeds: Trees in Oregon and Washington may produce over 200 seeds per cone [74]. The number of seeds produced annually on inland sites ranges from 12,800 per acre (31,600/ha) to 23,500 per acre (58,100/ha) [71]. The winged seeds are of medium weight compared to other conifers and are wind-dispersed a few hundred feet from the parent [14,183]. Over 4 years (1974-1977), grand fir seed rain in central Oregon ranged from 810 to 60,718 seeds per acre (2025-151,795/ha) per year; sound seed ranged from 4.5 to 33.3% [158]. Seeds stratify over winter and are not viable beyond the 1st spring [71,123,148,183]. Germination is extremely variable but is seldom over 50% [14,71,54]. Li and others [126] found that in collections from coastal British Columbia, light increased germination rates in unstratified seed (light/dark germination= 89/80%) but had no significant effect on germination rates of stratified seed (92/93%, p=0.05) [71].

Seedling establishment: Despite the perception of grand fir as a primarily late-successional species, it shows good establishment on recently disturbed sites [10,78], and mineral soil is the most favorable seedbed [78,158]. Grand fir also establishes in light to moderate understory shade and in small openings in mature forests [10]. Uneven-aged grand fir establishment may occur over an "extended period of years" [87].

Over 30% of grand fir seedlings die during the 1st year, and an additional 10% die their 2nd year. Biotic agents and drought usually cause early losses. Initial seedling root penetration is deep on sites exposed to full sunlight so that seedlings are relatively resistant to drought. However, on shaded sites root penetration is slow, and drought is the major cause of seedling mortality [71,45]. East of the Cascade crest, water deficits are seldom critical past the seedling stage [103,198].

Grand fir has shown good establishment after silvicultural treatments. After shelterwood cutting in grand fir-Shasta red fir in central Oregon, seedling establishment of both firs was best on mineral soil (created by bulldozing). Seedling density decreased as litter and slash depth increased [158]. In central Idaho, grand fir showed better seedling establishment than 5 associated conifers on logged sites, establishing on clearcuts or shelterwood cuts within an average of 7 years (range=0-30 yrs). It was less successful than most conifer associates on broadcast burned sites, but still showed 33% frequency on lightly scarified burns and 23% frequency on heavily scarified burns [78]. A western redcedar-western hemlock/pachistima habitat type on the Deception Creek Experimental Forest of northern Idaho was horse-logged (shelterwood cut or clearcut followed by broadcast burning). Four years after treatments, grand fir showed moderately good seedling establishment compared to 6 other conifer species; only western white pine and western hemlock established in greater densities. Density of grand fir averaged 1.4 seedlings/yd2 (1.8/m2) on the shelterwood site and 0.1 seedling/yd2 (0.2/m2) on the clearcut and broadcast burned site. Grand fir continued to establish during the 20-year study period. Twenty years after treatment, grand fir density was still moderate compared to other conifers, at 12.1 stems/yd2 (15.1/m2) on the shelterwood and 2.5 stems/yd2 (3.1/m2) on the clearcut [23].

Growth: Grand fir is the fastest growing of all North American firs. It may reach 140 feet (43 m) in 50 years on Coastal Range and interior northern California sites [156]. On the eastern slope of the Cascade Range, Washington, grand fir grew more rapidly in the absence of Douglas-fir but was not affected by presence or absence of lodgepole pine [39].

Vegetative reproduction: Grand fir reproduces solely from seed and does not sprout from the root crown [71,155]. It may produce epicormic branches on the lower bole if light and space become available. Epicormic sprouting may contribute considerable volume to a disturbed stand [14].

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phanerophyte

RAUNKIAER [147] LIFE FORM:
Phanerophyte

More info for the term: tree

Tree

Grand fir is classed as shade-tolerant  in all associations in which it occurs. In the Willamette Valley of  Oregon, it is the climax type following Douglas-fir and Oregon white oak.  In the Inland Empire it is more tolerant than any of its associates except  western redcedar and western hemlock. It is the climax type on sites too  dry for redcedar or hemlock. In coastal British Columbia, grand fir is  similar to Sitka spruce in tolerance; that is, it is slightly more  tolerant than Douglas-fir. It is the least shade-tolerant of the true firs  in British Columbia and is much less tolerant than western hemlock,  western redcedar, or Pacific silver fir. Grand fir is a versatile species  that, although quite tolerant, has a growth rate nearly equal to that of  western white pine.

    Grand fir is a dominant climax species in some habitat types and a  long-lived seral species in other types. It usually grows in mixed-species  stands where either even-aged or uneven-aged silviculture is practiced. In  the zone of genetic intergrade between grand and white fir, it is not  possible to separate the two species and their hybrids visually.  Silvicultural prescriptions and treatments are applied as if they were one  species. Where grand fir is desired under even-aged management,  shelterwood cuttings are preferred because regeneration and early growth  are best in partial shade. It also regenerates satisfactorily on most  sites, however, following seed tree or clearcutting (3,24). Following  seedling establishment, the overstory should be removed to encourage rapid  growth in height and diameter.

    Under uneven-aged management, grand fir regenerates adequately and  commonly outgrows the more tolerant western hemlock and western redcedar  as an understory tree. Certain classes of understory grand fir saplings  respond positively to release while others respond negatively (8,25).  Pole-size and larger grand firs respond well to release by thinning and  selection cuttings if the crowns are vigorous (13).

The grand fir root system is intermediate in  development among its associated tree species. The anchoring taproot does  not grow as rapidly nor as deeply as dry site associates such as ponderosa  pine, Douglas-fir, and lodgepole pine, but it grows faster and deeper than  wet site species such as western hemlock, western redcedar, and Engelmann  spruce. Seedling roots penetrate the soil rapidly enough in full sunlight  to survive drought conditions in duff and surface soil. Grand fir produces  roots under shaded conditions, enabling it to survive in the understory.  The adaptable root system contributes to the growth of grand fir over a  wide range of sites and climatic conditions. A relatively deep taproot  enables grand fir to survive and grow well on rather dry soils and exposed  ridges. On moist sites, the taproot is largely replaced by more shallow  lateral roots (9).

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phenology

Time of grand fir budding varies over several months depending on early spring temperatures. Generally, budding occurs from late March to mid-May at low elevations and in June at higher elevations [71,75]. Shoot elongation follows bud burst; cones generally open for pollination during shoot elongation [54,75]. Cones ripen from August to September of the same year and begin to disintegrate and dispense seed about a month later [71,75].

Grand fir phenology in several locations is given below [179]:

Location Bud break Pollination Cones ripen Seeds disperse BC mid-March April August ---- (no data) northern ID mid-June ---- August early Sept. western OR and WA mid-April to mid-May ---- ---- mid-Sept. Linn Co., OR mid-June ---- ---- ---- Mendocino Co., CA early April ---- ---- ----
Phenological observations of grand fir made over an 8-year period in northern Idaho and western Montana are summarized below [157]:

  Earliest date Average date Latest date Shoots start April 19 May 18 June 25 Buds burst April 5 May 25 June 11 Pollen starts May 1 June 4 July 2 Pollen ends May 20 June 20 July 14 Shoot growth ends June 9 August 3 August 31 Winter buds formed June 16 August 14 October 11 Cones full size July 7 August 5 August 26 Cones open August 30 September 9 October 11

No information is currently available.

Grand fir seeds germinate in the spring  following one overwinter period on the ground. In natural stands,  germination is quite variable but is seldom greater than 50 percent  because of embryo dormancy, insect infestation, and the perishable nature  of the seeds. Seeds are often so heavily infested with insects that an  entire crop may be classed as a failure (9).

    Stratification under cool, moist conditions speeds germination. Grand  fir seeds are typically stratified at 1° to 5° C (34° to 41°  F) for 14 to 42 days before nursery sowing in the spring. Results of  greenhouse germination tests of grand fir seeds are highly variable. In  three sandflat germination tests in the northern Rockies, grand fir had  the lowest germination percentage among major associates of the western  white pine type (9). Average percentages were grand fir, 12; western  larch, 30; Douglas-fir, 41; western white pine, 44; western hemlock, 65;  and western redcedar, 73. As with other true firs, germination is epigeal.

    In reported tests, germinative capacity ranged from 0 to 93 percent and  averaged 50 percent (32). The variability and average grand fir  germination are about average for the true firs.

    Grand fir seed germination begins in late April or early May on  exposed sites and a month later on protected sites where snow lingers  late. It is practically completed by July 1 on exposed sites and by August  15 on protected sites. Germination is best on mineral soil, but on  seed-tree cuttings, grand fir germinates nearly as well on duff as on any  other surface (9).

    Studies of seedling survival indicate that more than 30 percent of grand  fir seedlings die in the first season, and an additional 10 percent die in  the second season. Losses drop off rapidly after the first 2 years, and  seedlings 3 years old are fairly well established (9,24). Studies of  mortality during the critical first year indicate that early season losses  are due principally to biotic agents, especially damping-off fungi.  Fungi-caused mortality is very irregular, however. Later in the season as  the soil begins to dry and temperatures rise, mortality is due principally  to heat from insolation and drought. Surface-soil temperatures are less  important under shade or on sheltered sites, and under dense shade or on  north slopes high temperatures do not cause death. Grand fir is relatively  resistant to heat injury; it is equal to western white pine and  Douglas-fir and more resistant than western larch, western hemlock, and  western redcedar. Grand fir seedlings are relatively resistant to drought  on areas exposed to full sun because deep initial root penetration  protects them from drying of the surface soil. On heavily shaded, cool  areas, drought is the most important physical cause of seedling mortality  because initial root penetration is slow; even shallow drying of the  surface soil may cause drought mortality despite ample soil moisture at  deeper levels (9).

    Initial survival and growth of grand fir are favored by a moderate  overwood shade. Under full sun it is largely subordinate to faster  growing, shade-intolerant species. Under partial overwood shade, grand fir  is aggressive enough to form a dominant part of the reproduction. After 20  to 30 years, it makes most rapid growth in the open (9).

Seed production begins at  about 20 years of age and increases with age, diameter, and vigor of the  tree. Eight-year observations of permanent sample plots in Idaho show that  grand fir produced the fewest seeds of the species associated with western  white pine. Grand fir produced no good crops and only two fair crops,  while western white pine produced two good crops and three fair crops.  During the same 8-year period, western hemlock produced five good crops  and two fair crops (9). In the coastal forests of Washington, grand fir  ranked higher than western white pine and intermediate among upper slope  species in number of seeds produced per tree (22). Other sources place the  interval between good seed crops at 2 to 3 years (10,32).

    In the Inland Empire, a good cone crop for grand fir is considered to be  more than 40 cones per tree. A fair crop is 21 to 40 cones per tree. Grand  fir seeds caught annually in seed traps on two sample plots averaged  42,000/ha (17,000 acre) on the Kaniksu National Forest and 58,100/ha  (23,500 acre) on the Coeur d'Alene National Forest. Eight-year  observations of seed traps under a 300-year-old stand on the Priest River  Experimental Forest yielded 31,600 grand fir seeds per hectare (12,800  acre) annually (9). The yield of cleaned seeds ranges from 26,200 to  63,100/kg (11,900 to 28,700/lb) and averages 40,500/kg (18,400/lb) (32).

    When the cones are ripe, the scales fall away and release the  large-winged seeds, leaving only the central spike. Seeds are dispersed by  the wind and rodents. Most of the seeds are disseminated in the early  fall, about 5 percent falling before September 1 and 80 percent falling  before the end of October. Seeds sufficient to produce adequate  reproduction may be distributed up to 120 m (400 ft) from the parent tree,  but the average distance is about 45 to 60 m (150 to 200 ft). Seeds in the  duff remain viable through only one overwinter period (9).

Grand fir trees are monoecious; male and  female flowers are borne in clusters on branchlets of the previous  season's growth in different parts of the same tree. Female flowers,  producing cones and seeds, are short, spherical to cylindrical, and stand  singly and erect on the uppermost part of the crown. Male flowers,  pollen-bearing only, are ovoid or cylindrical and hang singly from the  lower side of branches below the female flowers. This arrangement favors  cross-fertilization. The cones mature in one season. Time of flowering may  vary over several months, depending on temperatures during the weeks  preceding flowering. Flowering occurs from late March to mid-May at lower  elevations of most coastal locations, and in June at the higher elevations  of the inland locations. The cones, mostly yellowish-green and  occasionally greenish-purple, ripen from August to September of the same  year, and seeds are dispersed approximately 1 month later (32).

    Extreme frosts may occasionally inhibit normal cone and seed  development. Several species of insects feed on the buds, conelets, and  seeds of grand fir, sometimes destroying 10 to 25 percent of the year's  seed crop (9).

Longevity of grand fir is intermediate among  true firs; trees 250 years old are common and occasional trees may be more  than 300 years old. On optimum sites in the coastal lowlands of  Washington, mature grand firs reach heights of 43 to 61 m (140 to 200 ft)  at 51 to 102 cm (20 to 40 in) d.b.h.; occasionally they reach 76 m (250  ft) in height and 152 cm (60 in) in d.b.h. (11). Grand fir in the redwood  forests of California reaches d.b.h. and heights as great as those   attained in the coast Douglas-fir region. In northern Idaho grand fir  normally grows to 35 to 46 m (115 to 151 ft) in height at 64 to 102 cm (25  to 40 in) in d.b.h. On the pumice soils of eastern Oregon it attains  height of 30 to 40 m (98 to 131 ft) with d.b.h. of 51 to 91 cm (20 to 36  in). On exposed ridges of the Inland Empire, heights of 15 to 21 m (49 to  69 ft) and d.b.h. of 30 to 36 cm (12 to 14 in) are common (9).

    The rapid early height growth nearly equals that of Douglas-fir on the  Pacific coast and western white pine in Idaho. On Vancouver Island and  western Washington sites, growth of 79 to 89 cm (31 to 35 in) per year was  reported. Trees 43 m (141 ft) tall at 50 years of age have been measured.  In Idaho early height growth of 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) on average sites  and 30 to 36 cm (12 to 14 in) on optimum sites has been reported. In the  dry pumice soils of eastern Oregon, average juvenile height growth up to  13 cm (5 in) per year has been reported. On these dry sites good height  growth is delayed until the taproots reach ground water. At some time in  the third decade, height growth receives considerable impetus and annual  height growths of 51 to 89 cm (20 to 35 in) or more are common (9).

    Among pole-size trees, growth is nearly equal to the more  shade-intolerant western white pine and Douglas-fir with which it is  commonly associated. Grand fir commonly outgrows the more tolerant western  hemlock and western redcedar.

    Grand fir has been planted successfully in many European countries,  where it is considered one of the most potentially productive species (2).  In England, growth of grand fir plantations was compared with that of  neighboring plantations of other commonly planted species, and the rate of  growth of grand fir at 40 years of age frequently equaled or exceeded that  of other species such as Sitka spruce, Norway spruce (Picea abies),  and Douglas-fir (2).

    Grand fir seldom grows in pure stands except in areas of the Clearwater  River drainage of north-central Idaho. Therefore, estimates of yields have  value mainly in relation to mixed stands. Grand fir ranks among the most  productive species in all the associations in which it grows. East of the  Cascade crest in Oregon and Washington, yields of grand or white fir  stands at age 100 years range from 476 to 1330 m³ /ha (6,800 to  19,000 ft³/acre) (4). In northern Idaho, where grand fir grows with  western white pine, predicted yields of normal stands range from 470 to  1078 m/ha (6,720 to 15,400 W/acre) at age 100 (14). Estimates of mean  annual growth range from 8 to 13 m³/ha (114 to 186 ft³/acre) in  Idaho (27) and 6 to 10 m³/ha (86 to 143 ft³/acre) in Montana  (23). On the more fertile soils of England, growth rates of 18 to 20 m³/ha  (257 to 286 ft³/acre) to age 40 have been reported (2).

Population Differences    There are no recognized varieties of grand fir, although a green  coastal form and gray interior form are often recognized. Five fairly  distinct climatic forms of grand fir have been identified. The differences  are mainly physiological and ecological (9). Provenance trials with grand  fir in Europe have resulted in ranking U.S. seed origins. Seed sources  west of the Cascade crest are preferred for planting in England and the  lowland sites in Europe (20). Significant differences in height growth   between trees from sources east and west of the Cascade crest have been  reported but average growth of westside and interior seedlings is  generally about the same (29). Most of the genetic variation available for  tree improvement appears to be among stands but genetic gains can also be  made by selecting individuals within stands.

    Hybrids    Grand fir crosses with both the concolor and lowiana varieties  of white fir. Several studies have shown hybridization and introgression  between grand fir and white fir in a broad zone extending from the Klamath  Mountains of northern California through southwestern Oregon and through  the Oregon Cascade Range into northeastern Oregon and west-central Idaho  (30). Grand fir has been crossed with several European and Asiatic species  (19). Natural hybrids have been reported between grand fir and subalpine  fir in northern Idaho (6).

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 1
Specimens with Barcodes: 1
Species With Barcodes: 1

Year Assessed

• Needs updating

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N4 - Apparently Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state status and wetland indicator values.

More info for the terms: cover, fire exclusion, prescribed fire, series, tree, tussock

Pests and diseases: Grand fir is susceptible to a variety of pathogens [16,22,71,189,139,174]. Fire exclusion and selective harvesting of pine and western larch that began at the turn of the century have resulted in an unprecedented abundance of grand fir in many areas of the interior West. Disease and mortality are greater in fir-dominated stands than in stands dominated by seral conifers. As a result, these late-successional stands are dominated by diseased, suppressed, and/or dead grand fir [63,139].

Grand fir is susceptible to heart- and root-decaying fungi because it does not exude heavy pitch over wounds or contain decay-inhibiting properties in its wood. Annosus (Fomes annosus), armillaria (Armillaria ostoyae), and Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorum) are among the most ubiquitous. Annosus gains entry through fire scars, dead branches, frost cracks, and mechanical injuries [7,8,16,71,62]. Armillaria infects roots by vegetative spread of mycelium across roots. Indian paint fungus infects small branchlet stubs. Fire injury to host trees may stimulate dormant Indian paint fungus to resume growth, accelerating decay [62].

Grand fir is susceptible to numerous insects. The most troublesome are
western spruce budworm, Douglas-fir tussock moth, western balsam bark beetle, and fir engraver beetle [71,80,117]. Timing of, and slash disposal following, thinning are important precautions in avoiding fir engraver attacks [189]. Several genera of moths, beetles, and flies eat the cones and seeds
[65,71]. A list of insecticides suitable for grand fir is available
[93].

Grand fir is the principal host of white fir dwarf-mistletoe (Arceuthobium abietinum f. sp. concoloris) in the Coast Ranges of Oregon and northern California and the Blue Mountains. Hemlock dwarf-mistletoe (A. tsugense) infects grand fir occasionally [86,99,100].

Silviculture: Grand fir can contribute considerable volume to forest stands [117,182], but its strong tendency to develop heart rot makes it less desirable as a leave tree than pines and western larch [9].
Hall [90] compared and summarized several
studies of grand fir productivity. Grand fir grows rapidly on cutover or burned
sites under favorable conditions [113]. Seedlings on Vancouver Island have grown as much as 3 feet (0.9 m) per year [14]. Grand fir may respond to release, but growth depends on prerelease vigor, site, and logging damage [60,80,117]. Older, low-vigor trees continue to
grow at a very slow rate while young, vigorous trees show rapid growth [60,117,159]. Stocking level recommendations for grand fir are available [40,159].

Recommendations for managing grand fir have been summarized for the eastern
Cascades of Washington [22], the Blue Mountains [150], and northern Idaho [189].

Harvesting for restoration: Restoring ponderosa pine, western larch, and other fire-dependent communities without the use of prescribed fire is difficult but possible. Mutch and others [139] recommend a series of stand entries, using selective harvesting of grand fir and other shade-tolerant species and mechanical treatment of fuels, where prescribed burning cannot be achieved. They caution, however, that soil productivity and general forest health are usually reduced, and exotic weed cover increased, under treatments other than prescribed fire.

Herbicides: Grand fir is rated intermediate in sensitivity to glyphosate [22].

This tree should be available through your local nursery.

Susceptibility to heart rot and decay is one of the more important factors in management of grand fir. Centers of decay are closely related to logging scars, frost cracks, broken tops, and other mechanical injuries. Grand fir is thin-barked and sensitive to fire – ground fires in moist creek bottoms are highly damaging but trees on dry hillsides are more resistant, largely because of a deeper root system and thicker bark. Control of fires in the drier southern parts of the Northwest has allowed an increase in range of grand fir over the last 50 years.

Well-stored seed can retain viability for up to 5 years, but germination is often poor, usually taking about 6-8 weeks. If seed are sown in a cold frame immediately after autumn ripening, stratification is said to produce a more even germination. Seedlings are usually transplanted in a nursery for 1-2 years. Young trees should be planted into their permanent positions when they are well under one meter tall.

The soft white wood of grand fir is a valued source of pulpwood. The  wood also is commercially valuable as timber even though it is weaker and  more prone to decay than many other species. The luxuriant foliage,  symmetry, and deep green shiny color make grand fir one of the preferred  species of Christmas trees grown in the Northwest. The attractive  appearance of grand fir makes it valuable in recreation areas and urban  plantings.

The soft wood of grand fir is a valued source of pulpwood and is harvested as timber even though it is weaker and more prone to decay than many other species. It is also used as plywood and has been used for various kinds of rough construction, such as framing, sheathing, subflooring, planking, beams, posts, siding, paneling, millwork, prefabricated buildings and structural members, furniture parts, and boxes and crates.

The thick-foliage, symmetry, deep green shiny color, and strong, orangish fragrance make grand fir one of the preferred species of Christmas trees grown in the Northwest. Most seedlings produced for Christmas tree growers originate from the "Panhandle" area of Idaho. In most areas, it will produce a marketable tree in 8-10 years. Grand fir also is valued in plantings in recreation areas and urban sites. It grows quickly in the moister parts of Britain and is cultivated for timber in western and northern Europe.

The aromatic properties of grand fir were important in many of its uses by American Indians. The needles were boiled to make a medicinal tea for colds. Boughs were brought inside as an air freshener and burned as incense and to make a purifying smoke to ward off illnesses. Dried, crushed needles have been used as baby powder. The pitch of young trees was mixed with oil to be used as a deodorant and rubbed on the scalp to prevent balding.

The famous Barlow Road snub-trees on the south side of Mount Hood in Oregon were grand firs. They were used by early settlers to control the rate of descent of their covered wagons on a particularly steep slope in their trek from east to west. Some of the rope-burned trees are still standing after 150 years.

The majority of pileated woodpecker roost trees in northeastern Oregon were grand fir, both live and dead, where a hollow chamber had been created by decay from Indian paint fungus. The majority of roosts occurred in old-growth stands of grand fir.